164 REFLECTIONS ON CHARACTER AND LEADERSHIP
In fact in the decades just after these two large tribunals, the prose-
cution of war criminals lessened signifi cantly again — most likely due to
the effects of the Cold War — and power politics froze any meaningful
decision - making. During (and because of ) this passivity, the despot Pol
Pot, a criminal responsible for the deaths of over two million Cambo-
dians (during the years 1976 – 1979), was never brought to justice.
Since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War,
however, the United Nations has acted to take more positive action
against despots. One of the primary objectives of the United Nations is
securing universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
of individuals throughout the world. Its reluctance to intervene against
war crimes and other crimes against humanity — to halt them immedi-
ately, rather than condemn them later — had come to haunt the institu-
tion. Many politicians and military strategists believed that if the UN
had taken preventive action in hot spots around the world, considerable
violence could have been avoided, millions of lives could have been
saved, and many countries could have avoided political and economic
ruin. Eventually shamed into action by the tragic events in former
Yugoslavia (during the Bosnian war of 1992 – 1995) and Rwanda (the
murder of Tutsis in 1994) the Security Council established two special-
ized ad hoc tribunals.
The fi rst, the International Criminal Tribunal, set up in The Hague
in 1991, began by bringing to justice the instigators of various crimes
against humanity in Yugoslavia, convicting a number of the key players,
the most important one being Slobodan Milosevic. Similar steps were
then taken to bring to justice the people responsible for the genocide in
Rwanda. The second International Criminal Tribunal, convened in
Arusha, sentenced Jean Kambanda, former prime minister of Rwanda,
to life imprisonment (the harshest penalty available under the UN tri-
bunal) for supporting and promoting the massacre of some 800,000
Tutsis, when the Hutus briefl y held power. Although these results have
been encouraging, more still needs to be done. The serious political,
practical, linguistic, and fi nancial diffi culties presented by the interna-
tional tribunals need to be overcome, and without delay.
Diffi culties notwithstanding, these tribunal convictions act as a
warning to dictators everywhere that the world is changing and that
they can no longer expect to escape consequences. Another positive step
is the willingness of many national courts to bring charges against dicta-
tors. The court in Chile, for example, acted against Augusto Pinochet,
former president of that country, for human rights abuses that occurred
during a period when many members of the political opposition disap-
peared. The same happened in Iraq, where his fellow citizens had