REFLECTIONS ON CHARACTER AND LEADERSHIP

254 REFLECTIONS ON CHARACTER AND LEADERSHIP

happens particularly in cases where people are sent to oversee the setting

up of a plant, the establishment of an oilrig, or the expansion of a

factory — tasks that are basically technical in nature. There may be very

little preparation for variations in cultural approaches. After all, an

executive is supposed to be someone who has the confi dence to sort out

any problems that deviate from usual working procedures — if something

goes wrong, he or she should be able to fi x it.

For such assignments, it cannot be denied that technical skills are

necessary, but they are not suffi cient: it is much more diffi cult, however,

to assess the interpersonal qualities and attitudes that can make an

assignment a success or a failure. But not doing so is risky. The cost of

failure for a company can be very high, not to mention the loss of

business and prestige due to poor leadership. In addition, there are the

psychological costs of failure for the individual and family involved. It

is clear that other, non - technical qualities will be required to make

expatriation a success, particularly when one reaches higher - level leader-

ship positions.

Broadly speaking, these qualities fall into three categories: general

leadership qualities, cultural adaptability, and upbringing and personality.

General Leadership Qualities

Clinical research on leadership (Zaleznik, 1989 ; Kets de Vries, 2001,

2006 ), building on and complementing the work of others (MacGregor

Burns, 1977 ; Bennis and Nanus, 1985 ; Tichy and Devanna, 1986 ; Kotter,

1988 ) shows that the following qualities are consistently cited as likely

to be necessary in a global leader.

The Capacity for Envisioning

Envisioning means being able to set future direction in an increasingly

complex environment and frequently depends on the person in question

having a strong operational code in their interior world that can drive

such a vision (McDougall, 1991 ; Leites, 2007 ). To understand the

concept of operational code, imagine it as an onion, with the more

superfi cial levels on the outside, and the more fundamental ones on the

inside. Taking this onion metaphor one step further, visions can range

from more prosaic preoccupations (such as a belief in the feasibility of a

new product or the entry into a new market) to much deeper concerns,

such as ethical issues or environmental consciousness.