176 CHAPTER 4. PARTICLES
counterpart to the word ”also”, since that can be used without any real
prompting.
A second use of is as an emphaticcontrastingparticle, meaning
something like the English ”even [if/by] ...”. In this use, it typically follows
forms:
”Even (by) leaving now, (you) probably won’t make it.”
A special form + is the + + ( ) construction, which
asks and grants permission:
”Ah, Shimokawa. Please, sit down.”
Or as part of a (short) conversation:
A:
B:
A: ”May I sit down?”
B: ”You may.”
Using with the form also means we can use it with form for
the copula, which is , forming :
”Even the teacher says so.”
In addition to these things, can – like – be combined with inter-
rogatives to form a specific kind of answer to these interrogatives. While
creates a vaguely specific answer, creates a vague but all-encompassing
answer:
interrogative meaning with meaning
what anything
who anyone
where anywhere
when anytime
how in any possible way