86 CAREER CHOICE AND DEVELOPMENT
group membership. My new theory pays particular attention to the
powers an individual has, but may not always exercise, to create a
public self that resonates better with his or her unique internal self.
Evolution of the Theory
I revised the circumscription and compromise theory in 1981 (Gott-
fredson, 1981) and revised it again, slightly, in 1996 (Gottfredson,
1996); this chapter extends the scope of the theory considerably.
Research testing of the theory since 1995 has not been extensive
but consistently supports the components tested (for example,
dimensions of compromise, Armstrong & Crombie, 2000; young
people’s images of the occupational world, Shivy, Phillips, &
Koehly, 1996; internalized constraints on career exploration, Flum
& Blustein, 2000). Users have continued to find its focus on child-
hood development, as well as gender differences (for example,
McLennan & Arthur, 1999), helpful. Criticisms of the theory have
concerned what it fails to discuss, particularly adult development.
But because there are theories that deal with adult development, I
have chosen to address a lacuna shared by all theories of careers:
Where do interests, abilities, and other determinants of vocational
choice themselves come from? How would knowledge about these
determinants assist counselors and counselees, especially with the
processes of circumscription and compromise?
All career theories in psychology stress the importance of a
good match between person and job. For instance, my own theory
concerns the process by which people unnecessarily circumscribe
and compromise their career options, often sacrificing fulfillment of
their “internal unique selves” in order to meet expectations for job
prestige and sextype. The theory’s aim is to help people prevent or
reverse unwarranted constriction in early career development and
thereby be more likely to obtain the “best fits” within their reach.
The assumption in career psychology—indeed, in all of differential
psychology—is that people embody inherent characteristics that