468 CAREER CHOICE AND DEVELOPMENT
social relationship values, play an important role in the career
development process (Hartung, et al., 1998; Ibrahim, Ohnishi, &
Wilson, 1994). I believe that a number of cultural values play im-
portant roles in the career development and occupational choice-
making process.
In a sense, values are similar to Bandura’s concept of outcome
expectations (Bandura, 1986). However, a human value is a much
more robust construct than outcome expectations, which is defined
as the anticipated result of taking a course of action such as choos-
ing an occupation. Values, like outcome expectations, are instru-
mental in the goal-setting process. Values and outcome expectations
are cognitive structures that have behavioral and affective dimen-
sions (Rokeach, 1973). However, it is at this point that the similar-
ity between the two constructs ends. Values are core beliefs that
individuals experience as standards that guide how they “should”
function. The idea that values are experienced as standards can be
used to explain successful and unsuccessful interpersonal relation-
ships on and off the job.
Because values focus partially on desired end states, they can be
used to explain why people who choose some occupations are un-
happy with their choices, even when they perform the tasks associ-
ated with those jobs in exemplary fashion. Similarly, values can be
used to explain motivational processes. Every teacher has wondered
why many students with high academic aptitudes do not do well in
the classroom. Bandura (1986) suggests that individuals exhibit
the behaviors they have acquired more often when they believe
those behaviors will be rewarded. He also suggests that people
develop evaluative reactions to their own behavior, and they exhibit
behaviors they find satisfying and reject those they deem inappro-
priate. In these statements, Bandura comes close to defining values
as Rotter (1954) viewed them, with the exception already noted.
Individuals experience their values in terms of “oughts” that
identify both the processes and objectives to be pursued. Although
much behavior is acquired through our routine interactions as chil-
dren and adults, values focus the learning process and play the cen-