tant at the time of labor force entry, as initial placements influence
subsequent occupational career trajectories. The types of industry
present in communities vary widely, and both the presence of par-
ticular industries and the range of industries affect the occupations
in which men and women can be employed. Both the probability
of employment and the level of earnings achieved are, in part,
determined by local unemployment rates, local wage levels, and the
size and racial composition within central cities. Non-Hispanic
whites are more subject to these local labor market conditions, as
minority workers’ opportunities are more restricted; however, they
earn lower wages, regardless of local conditions (Farkas, Barton, &
Kushner, 1988; Barton, Farkas, Kushner, & McCreary, 1985).
Sociologists have been particularly concerned with employ-
ment opportunities and the vocational development of young peo-
ple in high poverty areas of major urban centers. In his recent book
When Work Disappears (1996), William Julius Wilson argues that
the nationwide decline in manufacturing jobs and the movement
of jobs and more advantaged families to the suburbs have created a
new form of urban poverty in which the majority of adults in a
neighborhood do not work in the formal economy. Under such
conditions, young people grow up in families without a steady
breadwinner and in neighborhoods with high levels of joblessness.
As they reach employment age, young people face not only limited
opportunities for work but have not developed the disciplined
habits associated with stable employment. Such extreme conditions
are a reminder that possibilities for “choosing” one’s career can
range from the extremely limited to the wide open. In such cir-
cumstances, even marginal jobs, such as those in the fast-food
industry, assume great importance in the process of vocational de-
velopment (Newman, 1999).
Many rural areas also face rising unemployment and the out-
migration of young people. Moreover, rural areas offer less diversified
labor markets, and opportunities for meaningful employment can be
limited. In addition to the local labor market conditions of rural
areas, rural youth face some additional complexities in making career
A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 59