26 Holiday specials The Economist December 18th 2021
command, his enemies would no doubt have put him
on trial. Instead, in 49bc, he marched a legion across
the Rubicon river and into Italy.
Four years of civil war ensued. Caesar beat Pompey
and became dictator. He never called himself “king”, a
dirty word in Rome, or emperor. But his triumph
marked the end of the Roman republic, which is why a
gang of senators stabbed him to death in 44bc. He nev
er said “Et tu, Brute?” That was Shakespeare’s line. His
adopted heir, Augustus, became the first emperor.
Caesar’s legacy is immense. He shaped the political
geography of Europe. He ensured that French words
such as liberté, égalité, fraternité, vin blancand croissant
all have Latin roots. He gave the world a calendar that
more accurately reflects the time it takes Earth to go
around the sun and that is still used. Today only two
days are named after Jesus Christ, but Caesar and his
heir each have a whole month. The words “kaiser” and
“tsar” derive from his name. So, as the comedian Eddie
Izzard has pointed out, does Cesar, a brand of food for
“small yappytype dogs”.
What can we learn from Caesar, besides a greater
scepticism of the selfserving words of the powerful
(especially when they talk of martial glory)? His world
was distant from our own, and in many ways horrible.
Babies were abandoned on rubbish heaps; children
toiled in silver mines; slavery was taken for granted.
Yet Rome had virtues, too.
It was open to talent from anywhere. Conquered
peoples became Roman citizens. As in the modern
European Union, any citizen could travel and work
throughout a continentsized polity. This is a crucial
reason why so many ended up welcoming Roman rule,
and why the empire lasted so long.
There was social mobility. Freed slaves could be
come rich and powerful. At least one emperor, Diocle
tian, is thought to have been born in shackles. Other
emperors hailed from modernday Libya, Serbia and
Spain. Romans were rude about barbarians, but paid
no heed to skin colour.
Caesar often broke the law. But we can say this only
because Rome had written laws. In other ancient poli
ties, the law was whatever the chief said, so long as it
did not too blatantly violate tribal custom. For most
people in the Roman world, written laws made it easi
er to deal with strangers, and made life more predict
able. Many politicians today undermine the rule of
law, from Hungary and Russia to Brazil and America.
Voters should recall that when the western Roman em
pire collapsed five centuries after Caesar, the lawless
ages that followed were not pleasant.
A final lesson from classical times is not to duck
hard decisions. One reason why Caesar was able to
seize power was that Roman commanders were re
sponsible for providing their veterans with pensions.
Thus the legionaries who spent nine years fighting for
Caesar in Gaul had a huge financial stake in his future
grip on power. They were loyal to him, not Rome.
This is a terrible system, as the citizens of countries
where private militias run rampant today, from Iraq to
Myanmar, can attest. Augustus ended it by making the
central government responsible for military pensions.
It cost a fortune: more than half the annual tax revenue
of the empire, by one estimate. But it brought peace.
Today’s leaders, whorunand hide at the first mention
of pension reform(nevermind a carbon tax), should
pay heed. Carpe diem. n
shifts blame onto his subordinates, for advancing far
ther than he had ordered them to. In a speech after the
battle he chides his men for their “bad discipline”.
How many of his excuses are true is unknowable.
What we do know is that he regrouped and beat Vercin
getorix later that year at Alesia, another hilltop for
tress. For centuries historians debated where Alesia
was. But in 1839 a Latin inscription was found near Al
ise SainteReine, a town in Burgundy. It read “in alisi-
ia”. In the 20th century photos from the air confirmed
evidence of the siege lines that Caesar built around the
plateau. Modern 3dlaser scanning, which can detect
stone structures beneath soil and foliage, has enabled
archaeologists to map where Caesar’s fortifications
stood. Visitors can see a partial reconstruction, in
cluding ditches with spikes in them.
Caesar says he was joined at the siege by Titus La
bienus, who had just conquered Lutetia. Recent dig
ging confirms this: a lead sling pellet has been found
with his name on it. Such inscriptions were common
and often crude, “aimed at predictable parts of the
anatomy”, as Mary Beard, a historian, puts it in her
book “spqr: A History of Ancient Rome”.
Strangely, the museum at Alesia is bigger and older
than the one at Gergovia. Nations usually pay more at
tention to their victories than their defeats—Waterloo
station is in London, not Paris. But Caesar’s conquest
was so long ago that modern French people feel no ran
cour about it, notes Stéphanie Focé, who works at the
museum in Alesia. Indeed, many see themselves, cor
rectly, as descendants of both Romans and Gauls.
gallic symbol
Napoleon III, France’s emperor from 1852 to 1870, tried
to borrow the mystique of both Caesar and Vercingeto
rix. He paid for digs at Gergovia and Alesia, and erected
a huge bronzeof Vercingetorix near where the Gaulish
chief made his last stand. Its face is modelled on Napo
leon III’s. On the plinth is a quote Caesar attributed to
Vercingetorix: “Gaul united, forming a single nation,
animated by a common spirit, can defy the universe.”
Stirring stuff. But Caesar could not have heard the
speech from which the alleged quote is taken. Also,
Gauls in those days did not refer to themselves as
Gauls; it is a Roman word. Vercingetorix would have
referred to specific tribes, such as the Arveni and Man
dubii. Thus, Caesar made up a quote to make his en
emy sound more impressive and thereby buttress his
legally dubious claim to rule the Roman world. Two
millennia later another coup leader, Napoleon Bona
parte’s nephew, twisted the fake quote to make himself
seem like the embodiment of ancient Gallic glory.
Groups of children and pensioners at Alesia enjoy
relearning history. Gauls did not all sport huge mous
taches, and they did not eat many wild boars, says Ms
Focé. But they may have eaten dogs. Sorry, Obelix.
Caesar’s dispatches were not received uncritically
in Rome. Cato, a senator who detested him, said the
tribes whose women and children he had killed should
put him on trial. Pliny the Elder, an author, later ac
cused him of a “crime against humanity”.
But many Romans were impressed by his exploits.
He had brought great swathes of land under Roman
control. He had also looted a vast fortune (a fact his
dispatches strangely neglect to mention). And he com
manded 40,000 loyal, battlehardened troops, which
rather strengthened his hand. Had he relinquished his
What can we
learn from
Caesar, besides
a greater
scepticism of
the self-serving
words of the
powerful?