188 a short history of the united states
Jr., has shown, this expanded railroad system required professional man-
agers, engineers, and other specialists to provide for its construction and
maintenance, as well as the billing, collection, the preparation of timeta-
bles, and other services. Consequently, a new class of managerial profes-
sionals had arisen, enabling railroad companies to expand rapidly in size
and productivity.
What happened with railroading—that is, the appearance of mana-
gerial professionals—soon spread to other industries. The robber bar-
ons, obsessed with maximizing their profits, set about converting to a
managerial form of capitalism by which they could better dominate
their industry and form monopolies to maintain control. Branches of a
partic ular company would be established in various sections of the
country, directed by professional managers who supervised thousands
of workers and salesmen. Some of these robber barons, such as John D.
Rockefel ler and Andrew Carnegie, earned so much money that they
set up foundations to give it away. Without an income tax, many of
them became billionaires.
Because of the enormous wealth generated by the expansion of big
business, the United States became more conscious of its increased power
in the world—not that it wished to involve itself with the problems of
foreign nations or exert any influence in world affairs. Isolationism
seemed to provide many people with a sense of security by simply follow-
ing a policy of neutrality first enunciated by President George Washing-
ton. Still, there lurked the pride of knowing that Americans’ “experiment
in freedom,” resulting from a republican form of government, could be
attractive to other nations and imitated. If other countries wished to
achieve what the United States had acquired in terms of wealth and
power they need only convert from monarchy to democracy. Americans
had a desire to see their “experiment” take root across the globe and,
when necessary, to assist it themselves by direct or indirect action.
The pro gr e ss of the United States seemed miraculous. Its steady,
unrelenting development began with the arrival of Europeans searching
for land and with their conquest of a wilderness teeming with native
tribes. After the Revolution and the establishment of a unifi ed govern-
ment under the Constitution, the United States continued its westward