References 357for pharmacologic interventions that have been shown to
reduce subsequent morbidity to be effective (Krantz &
Lundgren, 1998, p. 211).
It is imperative that future research in the “elds of coro-
nary heart disease and hypertension continues to focus on the
roles of stress and psychosocial parameters as risk factors for
these diseases. In addition, future research studies must
advance our understanding of the mechanisms by which
biobehavioral factors impact CHD and hypertension. A
greater understanding of these physiological and behavioral
mechanisms will enable health care professionals to better
prevent and manage cardiac disorders, improving the quality
of life for millions of people worldwide.
REFERENCES
Ahern, D. K., Gorkin, L., Anderson, J. L., Tierney, C., Hallstrom, A.,
Ewart, C., et al. (1990). Biobehavioral variables and mortality or
cardiac arrest in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Pilot Study (CAPS).
American Journal of Cardiology, 66,59...62.
Alexander, F. (1939). Emotional factors in essential hypertension.
Psychosomatic Medicine, 1,173...179.
Allan, R., & Scheidt, S. (1996). Empirical basis for cardiac psychol-
ogy. In R. Allan & S. Scheidt (Eds.), Heart and mind: The prac-
tice of cardiac psychology(pp. 63...124). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Allender, P. S., Cutler, J. A., Follman, D., Cappucio, F. P., Pryer, J., &
Elliott, P. (1996). Dietary calcium and blood pressure: A meta-
analysis of randomized clinical trials.Annals of Internal Medi-
cine, 124,825...831.
American Heart Association. (1997). 1998 heart and stroke statisti-
cal update.Dallas: Author.
American Heart Association. (1999). Coronary heart disease and
angina.Dallas: Author.
American Medical Association, Council on Ethical and Judicial
Affairs. (1991). Gender disparities in clinical decision making.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 266,559...562.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statisti-
cal manual of mental disorders(4th ed.). Washington, DC:
American Psychiatric Association.
Amick, T. L., & Ockene, J. K. (1994). The role of social support
in the modi“cation of risk factors for cardiovascular disease. In
S. A. Shumaker & S. M. Czajkowski (Eds.),Social support and
cardiovascular disease: Plenum series in behavioral psy-
chophysiology and medicine(pp. 259...280).New York: Plenum
Press.
Anda, R., Williamson, D., Jones, D., Macera, C., Eaker, E.,
Glasman, A., et al. (1993). Depressed affect, hopelessness, and
the risk of ischemic heart disease in a cohort of U.S. adults.
Epidemiology, 4,285...294.
Appels, A. (1990). Mental precursors of myocardial infarction.
British Journal of Psychiatry, 156,465...471.
Arooma, A., Raitasalo, R., Reunanen, A., Impivaara, O., Heliovaara,
M., Knekt, P., et al. (1994). Depression and cardiovascular dis-
eases.Acta Psychiatric Scandanavia, 377(Supp.),77...82.
Aymann, D. (1933). The personality type of patients with arteriolar
essential hypertension. American Journal of Medical Science,
186,213.
Barefoot, J. C., Dahlstrom, W. G., & Williams, R. B. (1983). Hostil-
ity, CHD incidence and total mortality: A 25 year follow-up
study of 255 physicians. Psychosomatic Medicine, 45,59...63.
Barefoot, J. C., Helms, M. J., & Mark, D. B. (1996). Depression and
long-term mortality risk in patients with coronary artery disease.
American Journal of Cardiology, 78,613...617.
Barefoot, J. C., & Lipkus, I. M. (1994). The assessment of anger and
hostility. In A. W. Siegman & T. W. Smith (Eds.), Anger, hostil-
ity, and the heart(pp. 43...66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Barefoot, J. C., Peterson, B. L., Dahlstrom, W. G., Siegler, I. C.,
Anderson, N. B., & Williams, R. B., Jr. (1991). Hostility patterns
and health implications: Correlates of Cook-Medley scores in
national survey. Health Psychology, 10,18...24.
Barefoot, J. C., & Schroll, M. (1996). Symptoms of depression,
acute myocardial infarction, and total mortality in a community
sample.Circulation, 93,1976...1980.
Baum, A., Gatchel, R., & Krantz, D. S. (1997). An introduction to
health psychology(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Berkman, L. F., Leo-Summers, L., & Horwitz, R. I. (1992). Emo-
tional support and survival after myocardial infarction: A
prospective, population-based study of the elderly. Annals of
Internal Medicine, 117,1003...1009.
Blazer, D. G. (1982). Social support and mortality in an elderly
community population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 115,
684...694.
Blumenthal, J. A., Jiang, W., Babyak, M. A., Krantz, D. S., Frid,
D. J., Coleman, R. E., et al. (1997). Stress management and
exercise training in cardiac patients with myocardial ischemia:
Effects on prognosis and evaluation of mechanisms. Archives of
Internal Medicine, 157,2213...2223.
Blumenthal, J. A., & Wei, J. (1993). Psychobehavioral treatment in
cardiac rehabilitation. Cardiology Clinics, 11,323...331.
Blustein, J., & Weitzman, B. C. (1995). Access to hospitals with
high-technology cardiac services: How is race important?
American Journal of Public Health, 85,345...351.
Bosma, H., Peter, R., Siegrist, J., & Marmot, M. (1998). Two alter-
native job stress models and the risk of coronary heart disease.
American Journal of Public Health, 88,68...74.
Burrell, G., Ohman, A., Sundin, O., Strom, G., Ramund, B., Cullhed,
I., et al. (1994). Modi“cation of the Type A behavior pattern in
post-myocardial infarction patients: A route to cardiac rehabilita-
tion.International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1,32...54.
Burt, V. L., Whelton, P., Roccella, E. J., Brown, C., Cutler, J. A.,
Higgins, M., et al. (1995). Prevalence of hypertension in the