- How does adaptation planning and action vary from one country and city to the next? Between the
global North and South? To what extent is action contingent on perceived risk as opposed to projected
vulnerability? - What approaches to participation and civic engagement in climate adaptation are being implemented?
What approaches are most inclusive? Generating the most promising results? - What methods are municipalities using to assess the vulnerability of different subpopulations and
what steps are being taken to address the specific needs of these groups? To what extent are the
needs and concerns of residents of slums and informal settlements being accounted for in adaptation
planning?
II. Climate Campaigns of NGOs: Over the years, NGOs have extended their efforts from the local to the
global and from addressing nature conservation to working at the nexus of environmental protection, human
health, and social justice. In many instances, these organizations have achieved visibility as a result of engaging
in contentious acts or participating in global governance. However, more often than not, most NGOs operate at
the national and sub-national levels and focus on issues related to their immediate social, political, and cultural
contexts. Further, most engage in routine policy tasks, such as writing reports, meeting with public officials, and
provide services such as maintaining natural places, disseminating information, sponsoring educational activities,
and organizing local residents. While high visibility tactics can yield important gains, it is these more mundane
tasks that have the potential to support and enhance local climate adaptation agendas.
In general, we tend to associate climate-related campaigns with environmental NGOs. This makes
sense given that many transnational, national, and local environmental organizations have been working to raise
awareness and alter policy in areas such as energy efficiency, GHG reductions, green design and technology,
sustainable cities, and environmental justice. However, it appears that the range of organizations working on
climate issues is expanding. With adaptation gaining a place on many agendas, a variety of NGOs working in
fields such as development and humanitarian aid have initiated climate campaigns. Although their efforts may
have the potential to promote local adaptation and attend to the needs of vulnerable populations, we have limited
knowledge of their motivations, orientations, and goals and about the ways their activities may be affecting
environmental campaigns and the climate adaptation efforts of municipalities.
Sociological scholarship provides us with theoretical and methodological foundations for studying
the climate campaigns of NGOs. For instance, we have developed a robust body of knowledge about the
characteristics of NGOs and SMOs, particularly with respect to their selection of strategies and tactics, their
structures and resources, and, more recently, about the impacts they have had on political, social, and cultural
outcomes in a variety of different issue arenas. The recent turn toward cultural and cognitive studies has further
advanced our understanding by offering in-depth analyses of decision making processes and the strategic nature of
NGOs while recent scholarship on networks and coalitions provides insight into the basis for alliance formation.
Some studies that focus on climate issues have been published by organizational and social movement
scholars. At this point, the emphasis has been on the ways that different types of NGOs – from business
associations to the religious right to transnational environmental NGOs – have affected national and international
negotiations, public sentiment, and policy outcomes. However, the sweeping adoption of climate campaigns
suggests that it is important to widen the scope of our inquiries. By drawing on our current knowledge of NGOs
and SMOs, we can extend our research to better understand the characteristics and impacts of climate campaigns
and activities, including the extent that these organizations are working in concert, representing local priorities,