Psychology of Space Exploration
These and similar stories may not be representative of the general experiences
of national minorities in a space crew. Many of these individuals’ recollections were
primarily positive. Nevertheless, the negatively toned anecdotes point out, even if
they may overemphasize, problems of which planners should be aware.
To some extent, friction between majority and minority crewmembers may arise
from differences in the home cultures of the two most populous groups, Russians
(including citizens of the former USSR) and Americans. J. B. Ritsher, in an excel-
lent summary of the relevant cultural differences between these two nations, cites
research not only from space but also from aviation and from psychological, soci-
ological, and anthropological studies more generally.^21 According to these studies,
Russian culture values collectivism, hierarchical power, distance, and paternalism
more than American culture and values individualism, egalitarianism, mastery,
autonomy, and uncertainty less. In addition, the USSR was oriented more toward
survival and less toward well-being.
On a number of dimensions, including the ones listed above, Russia is dis-
crepant from all of the other nations involved in the International Space Station
project. Russian and American approaches to spaceflight differ in significant ways,
some of these reflecting the more general cultural differences discussed by Ritsher.
Supporting the view that Russian culture is more hierarchical than American cul-
ture were perceptions that Russian mission commanders were more authoritarian,
Russian communications were more structured and formal (at least in English trans-
lation), and Russians were more circumspect in criticizing mission control or the
systems on the spacecraft.^22
Perhaps because of differences in the national economies and the funding of
the space agencies, cosmonauts were more likely to feel that they had to try to
repair malfunctioning systems, whereas astronauts tended to discard and replace
them. Russians consequently were more satisfied with systems that worked ade-
quately rather than demanding that they work perfectly. On a more personal level,
cosmonauts (unlike astronauts) are paid a large spaceflight bonus, with deductions
based on how many of the preset goals (experiments, repairs, extravehicular activ-
ities, etc.) they fail to complete successfully during the mission. As a result, their
- J. B. Ritsher, “Cultural Factors and the International Space Station,” Aviation, Space, and
Environmental Medicine 76 (2005): 135–144. - Kumar, “Intercultural Interactions.”