Psychology of Space Exploration
forms of behavior.^19 For example, in addition to causing communications difficul-
ties, culture influences psychological reactions to stress, shapes social behavior, and
molds attitudes in such areas as food preferences, recreational activities, humor, and
privacy. Culture affects the likelihood and kinds of mental illness that arise, as well
as diagnosis and treatment. A severe problem that would be instantly recognized by
a psychiatrist who shared the same cultural background as the person in crisis might
not be recognized by a therapist from a different culture. Similarly, forms of therapy
that work in one culture may be ineffective in another. In his comprehensive sum-
mary, Kring identified 10 areas related to spaceflight that are influenced by national
culture and background: “(a) communication; (b) cognition and decision mak-
ing; (c) technology interfacing; (d) interpersonal interaction; (e) work, manage-
ment, and leadership style; (f) personal hygiene and clothing; (g) food preparation
and meals; (h) religion and holidays; (i) recreation; and (j) habitat aesthetics.”^20 A
2007 review of training for astronauts identified cultural awareness and sensitivity
as among the skills required for astronauts.^21 One of the tools that it mentions, in
passing, is the culture assimilator, to which we shall turn shortly.
As early as the 1970s, then, NASA and its Soviet, later Russian, counterpart
agency were faced with the major challenge of ensuring that astronauts and cosmo-
nauts would work together smoothly and effectively. To this end, it was imperative
to identify and overcome obstacles rooted in socialization within different cultures
and contrasting sociopolitical systems. They had to recognize and accommodate the
weight of lifelong training and indoctrination, inextricably tied to the divergent
traditions and ideologies of the two countries. Today, prior to an international mis-
sion, astronauts receive at least a one-day seminar that discusses customs and cross-
- N. Kanas, G. Sandal, J. B. Ritsher, V. I. Gushin, D. Manzey, R. North, G. Leon,
P. Suedfeld, S. Bishop, E. R. Fiedler, N. Inoue, B. Johannes, D. J. Kealry, N. Kraft, I. Matsuzaki,
D. Musson, L. A. Palinkas, V. P. Salnitskiy, W. Sipes, and J. Stuster, “Psychology and Culture
During Long Duration Space Missions” (revised final report, International Academy of
Astronautics Study Group on Psychology and Culture During Long-Duration Missions, 28
November 2006). - Kring, “Multicultural Factors for International Spaceflight,” p. 11.
- S. J. Hysong, L. Galarza, and A. W. Holland, “A Review of Training Methods and
Instructional Techniques: Implications for Behavioral Skills Training in U.S. Astronauts”
(NASA TP–2007-213726, May 2007), available at http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_
techrep/TP-2007-213726.pdf (accessed 2 July 2010).