Spaceflight and Cross-Cultural Psychologywhat sense are the Russian society and its members committed to long-term goals,
and what form does the feminine orientation take in social interaction, attitudes,
and behavior? The initial impression is that of a conservative, authoritarian, though
more matriarchal than patriarchal, society, which appears paradoxical in light of
Russia’s radical and revolutionary history through much of the 20th century.
Beyond these widely studied, internationally comparable dimensions, future
investigators should open new lines of inquiry, proceeding from general observa-
tions or important themes in Russian culture. An example would be the systematic
exploration of the role of patience, especially under adversity and other forms of
stress, often described as an important mode of adaptation in Russia.^43
EXPANDING THE RANGE OF CULTURES
As space exploration becomes ever more international, the approaches and
findings of cross-cultural psychology may be extended to other cultures. Japanese
astronauts have flown with both Americans and Russians. Observations and expe-
riences from these flights, from both the hosts’ and the Japanese participants’ points
of view, would provide valuable guidance in planning future spaceflights. There is
substantial and diverse research-based literature on cultural characteristics in per-
sonality, emotional expression, and social behavior in Japan. Thus, in addition to
Hofstede’s dimensions in Japan, described earlier, one can draw upon studies of dif-
ferences between Japanese and Americans and ways to bridge them; characteris-
tics of Japanese selves, modes of interpersonal relating, and socialization within
the family and at school; and many other themes.^44 Collectively, these contribu-
tions point to the prominence of group orientation in Japan that is reflected in
self-experience, interpersonal relations, and styles of adaptation. But it would be
an oversimplification to describe the Japanese self as sociocentric or the Japanese
- V. Shlapentokh, “Russian Patience: A Reasonable Behavior and a Social Strategy,”
Archives Euripeenes de Sociologie 36 (1995): 247–280. - W. Goodykunst and T. Nishida, Bridging Japanese/North American Differences (Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994); N. Rosenberger, ed., Japanese Sense of Self (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1992); L. T. Doi, Anatomy of Dependence (Tokyo: Kodansha,
1973); D. W. Shwalb and B. J. Shwalb, eds., Japanese Childrearing: Two Generations of Scholarship
(New York: Guilford Press, 1996).