Psychology of Space Exploration
social orientation as collectivistic. Instead, more than five decades of systematic
research reveals a more complex picture pointing to an intricate intertwining of col-
lectivistic attitudes with individualistic striving. Japanese and Americans both aspire
toward positive selves. However, Heine, Takata, and Lehman have concluded that
“Japanese self seems better characterized by a need to secure a positive view from
others rather than from oneself and this securing of others’ approval seems to be bet-
ter served by self-improvement rather than self-enhancement.”^45 Performance and
well-being of the Japanese tend to be enhanced in groups composed of their com-
patriots; subjective and output effects of being a minority of one among strangers in
space await systematic investigation.
CAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS
In past decades, cultural factors in behavior and experience tended to be slighted
or overlooked; with the current emphasis on cultural awareness, there is an emer-
gent danger of exaggerating the importance of culture. The former tendency leads
to cultural insensitivity; the latter trend promotes stereotyping and thereby reduces
personal sensitivity. Let us forever keep in mind that differences between individu-
als who come from different cultures are not automatically traceable to culture. In
complex situations encountered in the course of international spaceflight, culture is
likely to interact with other factors in affecting behavior and well-being, and in some
instances, culture may have had a minor or negligible influence. Moreover, astro-
nauts and cosmonauts are of necessity exceptional individuals, certainly shaped by
their respective cultures, but also statistically discrepant from most of their cultural
peers. We face a formidable undertaking to disentangle the cultural threads operat-
ing in any concrete instance. It is a challenge that requires persistence, patience, and
creativity to formulate general principles of culture’s influence in interaction with the
person and his or her context. Increasing participation of female astronauts from var-
ious nations will provide new challenges and opportunities for studying and optimiz-
ing the culture by gender interactions in space.
- S. J. Heine, T. Takata, and D. R. Lehman, “Beyond Self-Presentation: Evidence for Self-
Criticism Among Japanese,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000): 71.