Introduction: Psychology and the U.S. Space ProgramWhitson. Extended stays can also result from unexpected circumstances, such as
the loss of the Shuttle Columbia, which delayed the retrieval of one crew. If and
when humans go to Mars, the sheer distance may require a transit time of two years.
Technology is advancing in all areas, including space exploration. Over the
years, electromechanical gauges that dominated cockpits were replaced first with
cathode-ray tubes and now with digital displays. New technology is leading to new
human-machine partnerships, with computer-based decision aids, improved com-
munications, and increased availability of automated systems and robotics. New
on-board systems will augment the astronauts’ ability to diagnose and solve flight
problems, and it is reasonable to expect improved launch and recovery systems.^32
In the chapters that follow, psychologists with strong interests in space discuss
selected research topics within their historical contexts. In chapter 2, we trace the
uneven course of psychology in the space program and describe the history of astro-
naut selection and psychological support. In chapter 3, Sheryl Bishop points out that
whereas there has been limited opportunity to study astronauts in space, there has
been ample opportunity to study people in environments that in some ways resem-
ble that of space. These analogs include polar camps and undersea research vessels
that share danger, deprivation, isolation, confinement, and other characteristics with
spacecraft, along with simulators intended to imitate or mimic spaceflight conditions.
In comparison to studies conducted in “everyday” or laboratory settings, studies set in
these more extreme environments offer a balance between accessibility and experi-
mental control on the one hand and a degree of environmental realism on the other.
Bishop discusses a wide range of analogs and simulators in the United States and
abroad and notes that these are absolutely crucial for training purposes.
Spaceflight has positive and rewarding as well as stressful characteristics, and
in chapter 4, Julie Robinson, Kelley J. Slack, Valerie Olson, Mike Trenchard, Kim
Willis, Pam Baskin, and Jennifer Boyd discuss one of these psychological benefits:
observing Earth. They present a unique study of taking pictures from space. This
is an excellent example of an unobtrusive study, that is, one that does not set up
expectations on the part of the research participants or infringe on their privacy.
An overwhelming proportion of the photographs taken from the ISS are initiated
- J. W. McCandless, M. K. Kaiser, T. Barth, R. S. McCann, N. J. Currie, and B. Woolford,
“Human-Systems Integration Challenges for Constellation,” Human Factors and Ergonomics
Society Annual Meeting Proceedings, Aerospace Systems 5 (2007): 96–100.