Psychology of Space Exploration
ISS mission is longer than a Shuttle mission, the number of targets per increment
varies from approximately 140 to 160 sites, and they are updated with the change
of each ISS increment.
The digital camera, a Kodak 460 DSC, was introduced on STS-73; however,
the Hasselblad film camera remained the favorite of the Shuttle crews, most likely
because of their experience with that camera. Improvements in digital technology
coincided with the change in focus of the Shuttle program to the assembly of the
International Space Station. Following the Space Shuttle Columbia accident in
2003, NASA’s support of Earth observations by crewmembers has been focused on
the ISS. Although SSEOP was dissolved, individual Shuttle crewmembers on mis-
sions to the ISS could still use the on-board cameras to take images of Earth, but
without scientific support.
Earth Observation in Human Spaceflight TodayThe digital camera was favored by ISS crews over the film cameras because it
allowed them to review their imagery while on orbit. The immediate review of their
imagery enabled the crews to view and improve their photographic techniques.
Digital images could also be down-linked to the CEO scientists for review, and the
scientists in turn could provide feedback to the crew. The issue of film versus digital
cameras was settled in 2003 when mission length was extended to about six months.
The extension of crew time on orbit made film more susceptible to radiation “fog-
ging.” While digital cameras are not immune to radiation, they are better able to
cope with longer exposures to the space environment, and eliminating the need to
return film to Earth was also an important improvement.
With the use of the 400-millimeter lens and 2× extender available for the dig-
ital camera, ISS crews have been able to document dynamic events at a higher
resolution than was possible from the Shuttle with the 250-millimeter lens.^9 The
400- and 800- millimeter lens options are clearly the favorites of ISS crews. An
additional benefit of the camera is the automatic logging of the time as well as
- Julie A. Robinson and Cynthia A. Evans, “Space Station Allows Remote Sensing of Earth
to Within Six Meters,” Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 83 (2002): 185, 188.