88 The Meaning of Size
Specifically, the woman was consistently associated with affective traits such
as “warm,” “expressive,” and “sensitive,” and the man was associated with
“active,” “objective,” “independent,” “aggressive,” and “direct” (Broverman
et al., 1972). The results also showed that there were more traits associated
with the man than the female, that the male traits were considered more
socially desirable, and that the female traits were more childlike. This series
of studies was criticized on the grounds that they explored only personal-
ity, not behavioral traits; that the categories manand womanwere too broad
and could not differentiate according to ethnicity, class, or age; and that the
chosen methodology forced the participants to make unnatural choices. The
studies that followed addressed these methodological issues. For example,
Deaux and Lewis (1984) asked participants to list characteristics that they
thought were common to males and females. The results showed that a
wide range of attributes was chosen, including role behaviors (e.g., financial
provider, meal preparer), physical characteristics (e.g., sturdy, graceful), and
occupations (e.g., construction worker, telephone operator), as well as the
personality traits identified by the Broverman studies. However, although
a wider range of attributes emerged, the results still showed consistent
differentiation between “the man” and “the woman,” with the women being
seen as warm, emotional, small, and taking care of children. Deaux, Kite,
and Lewis (1985) also explored subgroups of men and women such as
“mother,” “father,” “business woman,” “macho man,” and “housewife.” The
results showed two things. First, they indicated that the stereotypes of the
subgroups were as strong as they were for the more global terms manand
woman. Second, the data indicated that men and women are considered
in terms of opposites even when the participants in the study were given
a free choice of attributes. Deaux and Lewis (1984) also examined which
characteristics were most powerful at triggering stereotypes, and concluded
that physical characteristics produced more instant and consistent stereo-
types than personality traits, roles, or behaviors.
In summary, being male or female is a physical characteristic which is
central to the formation of consistent stereotypes involving the inferred asso-
ciation between sex and a range of personality traits, roles, occupations,
and behaviors.
The Meaning of Size
It is not only sex that generates powerful stereotypes. Much literature has
also highlighted the stereotypes associated with body size. If the media images