Healthy Eating 29or controlled for. This artificial approach, however, may not reflect
eating in the real world.
Self-report measures: Researchers use a number of self-report measures
such as food frequency questionnaires (e.g., “How often do you eat white
bread?”), food diaries whereby participants provide a detailed descrip-
tion of their daily food intake, or general questionnaires in which
participants are asked about aspects of their diet (e.g., healthy eating,
dieting, overeating, and bingeing). These provide useful insights into
what people eat in their daily lives. They do, however, have their short-
comings. Food frequency questionnaires can be all-inclusive and therefore
extremely long and laborious to complete, or can contain only the
foods considered relevant by the researcher but miss those eaten by the
participant. It is also difficult to assess not only what food was eaten but
also how much and how it was prepared. Food diaries can generate
a wealth of data if the participant chooses to detail everything (or
nothing if they do not), but again it is hard to calculate how much of
each food was eaten and how it was cooked. Questionnaires generate
more general data about styles or approaches of eating but can be con-
founded by whether or not the participants wish to disclose the ways in
which they approach food. Furthermore, all self-report measures of
eating behavior are open to bias: People often forget what they have eaten,
particularly if it is not part of a meal, and much eating is “mindless”
eating such as in front of the TV or whilst walking down the street; the
measures are open to social desirability factors with the participant
stating what they believe the researcher wants to hear; and there is so
much variability of the kinds, brands, and packaging of available food
that it is hard to know exactly what food was eaten and exactly what
was in it. Finally, the act of recording what is eaten may well change what
is eaten because people become more aware of their food intake. In fact,
self-monitoring is used as part of obesity management (see chapter 8)
as a means to reduce mindless eating and encourage people to eat less.
Observational methods: Researchers assess food intake by watching
participants eat in public places such as canteens and restaurants. They
also film family meals in the family home or by bringing the family into
the laboratory. They then code the participants’ behavior in terms of
factors such as what is eaten, how much is eaten, speed of eating, and
any interaction with others during eating. This approach may capture
aspects of real-life eating, but if the participants know they are being
observed this may change their behavior (the Hawthorne effect), and