moderate physical punishment applied as a discipli-
nary tactic is often socially sanctioned. Nevertheless,
research shows that corporal punishment can have neg-
ative outcomes and that serious physical child abuse
sometimes results from escalated corporal punishment.
There is agreement that deliberate acts resulting in
physical harm to a child, such as when an angry or
frustrated parent hits, shakes, burns, or throws a child,
constitute physical abuse. In many cases, the fact that
physical abuse has taken place is relatively clear
because of visible injuries to the child. Medical exam-
ination can confirm, to a certain extent, whether certain
bruises, broken bones, bites, and burns are caused by
accident (e.g., a child falling downstairs) or are a delib-
erate infliction of harm. In other cases, however, inten-
tional physical abuse is hard to detect.
Psychological or emotional maltreatment involves
acts of commission or omission that hinder children’s
psychological development. It can include acts of ter-
rorizing, isolating, corrupting, and denigrating, as
well as ignoring children or other acts that signal to
children that they are unwanted, worthless, or
unloved. Psychological abuse often accompanies
other forms of child maltreatment, but it can also take
place independently. It is typically quite hard to dis-
cover, and children experiencing such maltreatment
rarely get appropriate therapeutic help. Less legal
attention is also paid to this kind of abuse. This is
unfortunate, because research indicates that psycho-
logical abuse can have detrimental effects on
children’s development and well-being.Incidence of Child Abuse
Children from birth to 3 years of age are most at risk
of being victims of reported child abuse and neglect.
Of all cases reported and investigated, approximately
one third are supported by enough evidence for
authorities to determine that abuse actually occurred.
The remainder lack evidence sufficient to support
legal action, which does not necessarily mean that
abuse did not take place. In fact, trends in re-referral
rates (i.e., children reported as maltreated on multiple
occasions) suggest that many unsubstantiated cases
probably represent real abuse. Furthermore, even the
total number of reported cases is likely to be a serious
underestimate of the actual occurrence of child abuse,
because child victims are often reluctant to disclose
their experiences. For example, research reveals that
about a quarter of young adults who experience childsexual abuse and a third of those who experience
physical abuse never tell anyone about their maltreat-
ment. Among those who do tell, fewer than 10%
report the abuse to authorities.
Throughout the 1980s, mandatory reporting laws
increased the number of child maltreatment cases that
were reported and that entered the child protection
and criminal justice systems. Reporting levelled off
during the 1990s and has even been declining in
recent years. Research suggests that this decline, at
least in part, reflects an actual decrease in the inci-
dence of child maltreatment, suggesting that societal
prevention efforts have been successful.Potential Effects
of Child Maltreatment
Many maltreated children are remarkably resilient and
lead normal, healthy lives. Even so, child maltreatment
often does have very serious short- and long-term
physical and psychological consequences, leaving
physical and psychological scars that can last well
after the abuse or neglect has ended. Children who
experience maltreatment can suffer immediate physi-
cal consequences, including broken bones, burns,
bruises, abrasions, sexually transmitted diseases, preg-
nancy, malnutrition, declining health, or even death.
Long-term psychological and behavioral outcomes can
include internalizing behaviors (withdrawal, depres-
sion, anxiety) and externalizing behaviors (aggression,
bullying, promiscuity). Child maltreatment can also
increase the likelihood of development of serious psy-
chopathology such as posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD). Children who are maltreated may have diffi-
culties establishing trusting relationships with their
peers and adults. Moreover, experiencing maltreatment
is associated with deficits, on average, in children’s
cognitive development, which, in addition to socio-
emotional deficits, also directly affects academic per-
formance and school achievement. Children who have
been maltreated are at an elevated risk of becoming
delinquents, substance abusers, and victims of addi-
tional crimes.
Researchers struggle to identify the relations
between particular forms of child abuse and specific
outcomes, especially since different forms of mal-
treatment often co-occur. With careful analysis, how-
ever, some patterns have begun to emerge. For
example, it is clear that sexual abuse is a risk factor for
later substance abuse, depression, and attentional74 ———Child MaltreatmentC-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:41 PM Page 74