Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

research has found that the influence exerted by one

person on another’s memory judgments can be modu-

lated by person perception factors. For example, ten-

dencies to conform can be increased (or decreased)

by manipulating the perceptions of each individual

regarding the relative knowledge each has of stimuli

they encoded together as a dyad. Similar effects can be

obtained by manipulating the perceived relative com-

petence of each individual or the overt confidence with

which individuals make their assertions to each other.

Research continues to explore which factors can

increase, decrease, and possibly eliminate the longer-

term effects of conformity on memory. However,

progress in addressing such issues has been hampered

by the complexity of the phenomenon itself, due to the

inherently dynamic and variable nature of realistic

interactions between individuals. Despite this, new par-

adigms to investigate conformity in eyewitness reports

are being developed and refined so that the effects of

naturalistic interactions on subsequent memory reports

can be investigated with full experimental control.

Fiona Gabbert

See also Eyewitness Memory; False Memories; Postevent

Information and Eyewitness Memory; Source Monitoring

and Eyewitness Memory

Further Readings

Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & Allan, K. (2003). Memory

conformity: Can eyewitnesses influence each other’s

memories for an event? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17,

533–543.

Roediger, H. L., Meade, M. L., & Bergman, E. T. (2001).

Social contagion of memory. Psychonomic Bulletin &

Review, 8,365–371.

Shaw, J. S., Garven, S., & Wood, J. M. (1997). Co-witness

information can have immediate effects on eyewitness

memory reports. Law and Human Behavior, 21,503–523.

Wright, D. B., Self, G., & Justice, C. (2000). Memory

conformity: Exploring misinformation effects when

presented by another person. British Journal of

Psychology, 91,189–202.

CONSENT TOCLINICALRESEARCH

Informed consent practices have evolved over time

after instances were documented in which research

participants were not treated fairly or respectfully, were

not informed, or were subjected to unnecessary harm.

Current federal regulations support the ethical treat-

ment of persons in the research setting in that the par-

ticipation is voluntary, that the risks outweigh the

benefits, and that all people are given an equal chance to

participate. When a researcher invites a participant into

the research setting, the researcher is required to provide

the necessary information, to ensure that the participant

fully understands the information, and to stop the

research if it is felt that these standards have not been

met. Prior to enrollment in a research study, that candi-

date must provide valid consent for participation. That

is, the participant must be fully informed about the

research purposes, risks, benefits, freedom to withdraw

consent, and other relevant information; must enter vol-

untarily into the research; and must be capable of mak-

ing an informed decision. Informed consent to clinical

research is important in the field of psychology and law,

because psychological researchers must be aware of the

requirements of conducting research and must protect

themselves and also their research participants from any

ethical breaches. Clinical research refers to studies con-

ducted in a setting where clinical conditions, either med-

ical or psychiatric, are diagnosed and treated. This entry

provides a historical basis for the evolution of informed

consent, the requirements of informed consent, and will

end with a brief discussion of the capacities of poten-

tially vulnerable individuals who may have compro-

mised ability to give a valid consent by virtue of

impaired capacity or lack of voluntariness.

Historical Perspective

In research settings, individuals are protected by the

doctrine of informed consent, which has evolved

through policies, regulations, and professional codes.

In the 1940s, unspeakable acts were committed when

medical experiments on human subjects were con-

ducted in concentration camps in Nazi Germany. In

response to the atrocious experiments, the first formal

document for conveying the ideas of protection of per-

sons as human subjects and informed consent was

developed. The Nuremberg Code set forth 10 guide-

lines for the ethical treatment of persons involved in

research. The first statement of the Nuremberg Code

states that the voluntary consent of the human subject

is absolutely essential. Before an affirmative decision

by the person can be made, one must know the nature,

duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method

and means in which it is conducted; and the reason-

able inconveniences expected, which may possibly

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