against clinicians for either falsely diagnosing or fail-
ing to diagnose the disorder. Alter identities have
asked for separate legal representation and have been
asked to give sworn testimony. The age of the accused
alter identity has also been used as an argument to
determine whether the patient is tried in a juvenile or
an adult court, and a DID diagnosis can affect deci-
sions about competency to stand trial.
Taking into account the exponential increase in
diagnosis rates, it may be that veridical cases of DID
are interspersed among many others that do not com-
pletely fit the diagnosis and that are the iatrogenic
result of misdiagnoses, suggestive therapy, or demand
characteristics. Intentional malingering or exaggera-
tion of deficits should also be a consideration, espe-
cially in situations with important consequences, as in
the case of litigation. Given the controversy over the
validity of the disorder, care needs to be taken when
making a diagnosis of DID. Self-report measures of
memory loss, commonly used for diagnosis, have not
always been corroborated by more objective measures
of memory, suggesting that the subjective amnesia
experienced by the individual may not correspond
with the objective experience of amnesia. Thus, cau-
tion should be used in evaluating or admitting claims
of amnesia in cases of DID, especially in the court-
room where the ramifications of a faulty diagnosis are
high. Since inter-identity amnesia is a necessary crite-
rion for a diagnosis of DID and can play an important
role in the courtroom, an objective determination of
such amnesia is critical and should be necessary to
confirm a diagnosis of DID.Lauren L. Kong and John J. B. AllenSee alsoCriminal Responsibility, Assessment of; False
Memories; Forensic Assessment; MalingeringFurther Readings
Allen, J., & Iacono, W. (2001). Assessing the validity of
amnesia in dissociative identity disorder: A dilemma for
the DSMand the courts. Psychology, Public Policy, and
Law, 7(2), 311–344.
Gleaves, D. (1996). The sociocognitive model of dissociative
identity disorder: A reexamination of the evidence.
Psychological Bulletin, 120(1), 42–59.
Spanos, N. (1994). Multiple identity enactments and multiple
personality disorder: A sociocognitive perspective.
Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 143–165.DIVORCE ANDCHILDCUSTODY
Divorce is exceedingly common in the United States,
and it can have long-ranging effects on all parties
involved, particularly children. In those relatively rare
circumstances in which child custody issues cannot be
resolved by the parents, the process can become even
more contentious and emotional and ultimately end up
in the court system. To inform its decision making in
these contested cases, courts may appoint mental health
examiners to evaluate families and either recommend a
specific custody decision or provide detailed informa-
tion about the factors affecting a child’s development
within potential custody environments. Custody evalu-
ations are thought to be perhaps the most complex and
acrimonious referral questions addressed by forensic
examiners. Research has begun to identify those
areas that most affect children’s adjustment following
divorce, so that psychologists may focus their evalua-
tions on these areas in the future. Many questions
remain, however, concerning how best to characterize,
quantify, and predict what constitutes the best outcome
for children in relation to custody.Divorce and Its Aftermath
Of children from married parents in the United States,
more than 40% will experience the effects of divorce.
An untold, but likely larger, percentage of children
who are born to cohabitating but unmarried parents
also will experience the separation of their parents.
Evidence suggests that at least a quarter of separating
parents will experience substantial conflict concern-
ing child custody. Despite this, the majority of cus-
tody decisions are resolved by parents without
resorting to litigation. The use of alternative resolu-
tion techniques, such as divorce mediation, appears to
be increasing as a means of resolving contested cases,
rather than resorting to judicial determinations.
The courts typically may choose from a variety of
different forms of custody that are thought to best serve
the child. Most states differentiate between physical
custody, which relates to the time spent with parents,
and legal custody, which refers to rights regarding
decision-making capacities (e.g., schooling, medical
care). The majority of children appear to live primarily
with their mothers, although there is some evidence of
increasing residence with single fathers. Joint physical230 ———Divorce and Child CustodyD-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:42 PM Page 230