Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

traits, and a history of rule violation) were the best pre-

dictors of sexual recidivism.

Few studies have focused on dynamic factors related

to recidivism. In their meta-analysis, Hanson and

Morton-Bourgnon found several dynamic factors that

were related to sexual recidivism, including sexual pre-

occupation and general self-regulation deficits.

However, it should be noted that they found no rela-

tionship between factors that have been commonly

assumed to be related to sexual re-offending and subse-

quent sexual recidivism, such as psychological distress,

denial of sex crimes, victim empathy, and motivation

for treatment.

Hanson and Harris conducted another study looking

specifically at dynamic factors related to sexual recidi-

vism. They examined sexual re-offending in a sample

of 400 sex offenders for a period of 5 years following

release. The researchers found that sex offenders who

had committed new sex crimes were more likely to be

unemployed, have substance use disorders, engage in

deviant sexual activities, demonstrate low levels of

remorse for the victim, and report a more chaotic and

antisocial lifestyle than those who had not committed

new sexual offenses.

Sex Offender Typologies

and Recidivism

Some evidence suggests that the risk of sexual recidi-

vism may differ by sex offender typology (category

of sex offender). One study found that rates of sexual re-

offense for incest offenders (those who offend against

family members) ranged between 4% and 10%; rates of

sexual recidivism for child molesters with female vic-

tims ranged between 10% and 29%; rates of sexual

recidivism for child molesters with male victims ranged

between 13% and 40%; rates of sexual recidivism for

rapists ranged between 7% and 35%; and rates of sexual

recidivism for exhibitionists (those who expose them-

selves in public) ranged between 41% and 71%.

Numerous studies have examined recidivism rates

for rapists. Rates of sexual recidivism for rapists have

ranged between 11% and 28% over 5 years. Researchers

have postulated that these discrepancies in recidivism

rates could be attributed to the fact that there are differ-

ent types of rapists (such as those who are mentally dis-

ordered vs. those on probation) and the differential

length of follow-up.

When studying recidivism rates among sex offend-

ers who commit sexual offenses against children,

researchers generally separate the sex offenders into

three categories: (1) those who molest girls; (2) those

who molest boys; and (3) those who molest family

members (incest offenders). Generally, it has been

found that child molesters who have same-sex victims

are at risk of higher rates of re-offending than those

who offend against children of a different sex. A study

of mentally disordered child molesters who offended

against boys found a recidivism rate of 30% over 5

years, compared with a 25% recidivism rate for child

molesters who offended against girls and a recidivism

rate of 6% for incest offenders. However, other studies

have found no differences between recidivism rates for

child molesters with male or female victims.

It should be noted that there have been some con-

tradictory findings regarding sex offender typologies

and risk for re-offending in the recidivism literature.

Many studies, including Hanson and Bussière’s meta-

analysis, have found higher sexual recidivism rates for

rapists compared with child molesters, with incest

offenders having the lowest rate of re-offense of all

categories of sex offenders. However, one study found

that over a 25-year period, child molesters had a higher

rate of re-offense than rapists (52% vs. 39%). In this

study, recidivism was recorded as any new re-arrest

that could inflate recidivism statistics. Another factor

that should be considered when examining sex

offender typologies and recidivism is that there is some

evidence that sex offenders may not be stable in their

victim choice, and there could be crossover (e.g., a

child molester with male victims could offend against

a female) in victim age and gender.

Elizabeth L. Jeglic

See alsoSex Offender Assessment; Sex Offender Treatment;

Sex Offender Typologies

Further Readings

Hanson, R. K., & Bussière, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse:

A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies.

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,

66 (2), 348–362.

Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A. (2000). Where should we

intervene? Dynamic predictors of sexual offense

recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(1), 6–35.

Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgnon, K. E. (2005). The

characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: A meta-

analysis of recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and

Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 1154–1163.

Marshall, W. L., & Barbaree, H. E. (1990). Outcomes of

comprehensive cognitive-behavioral treatment programs.

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