the species from the earliest small-scale societies to the global web of economic and
social relations that was appearing in the mid-nineteenth century. Anticipating
dimensions of process sociology that aim to integrate elements from the biological
and social sciences in a synoptic approach to the development of the species, Marx
stressed the importance of comprehending the distinctive features of the biological
constitution of human beings that made history and therefore higher levels of
interconnectedness possible. The analysis was geared towards understanding the rise
of universal structures of political consciousness with significant cosmopolitan
potential – with the capacity to increase human control over largely unmastered
social processes. Similar normative tendencies can be found in process sociology,
but they are subdued, given its express commitment to detached social inquiry.
Sophisticated studies of the growth of human interconnectedness are in their
infancy, rather like the processes they examine. The former are undergoing a tran-
sition from the unsurprising condition in which the societies that had spearheaded
global integration constructed images of the past that largely celebrated their
achievements. A more detached conception of human history had to await the
challenges to the European sense of racial and cultural superiority, and the collapse
of the overseas empires. Only then could Western thought begin to recognise the
contribution that different civilisations and inter-civilisational encounters have made
to human development.^9 It is probable that ‘the human web’ will become more
intensive and extensive in the coming centuries unless, as is perfectly possible,
catastrophic events throw the dominant tendencies of the last six thousand years into
reverse.^10 But if no such rupture takes place, future generations armed with more
synoptic conceptual frameworks may conclude that nineteenth- and twentieth-
century studies of world history took the first faltering steps towards more accurate
grand narratives that explain rising levels of global interconnectedness.
Efforts to account for the past few thousand years of history have proliferated in
recent decades, most concentrating on understanding the trends that have shaped
human development since then, forcing all people into a single stream of world
history and generating interrelated problems that raise the question of whether
humans can develop more universalistic structures of consciousness that prepare
them for the challenges of the next phase of ‘global integration’. Recent grand
narratives stress the overall trend towards the ‘scaling up’ of social and political
organisation that began with the revolutionary transition from nomadic hunting and
gathering groups to settled agricultural societies that took place at the end of the last
Ice Age.^11 Most focus on the rise of the first cities in the Ancient Near East from
around the ninth millennium BCE, on the appearance of the first city-states in that
region about five millennia later, and on the rise of the first agrarian empires during
the next two thousand years. Most argue that similar processes occurred, probably
independently, in other regions including Egypt, the Mediterranean, the Indus
valley, China’s Yellow River region, Mesoamerica and the Andes.^12 Several
accounts now exist of how the major regional civilisations that had earlier widened
the spheres of social and political interaction within their respective domains began
to coalesce with the dawning of the Columbian epoch. Reflecting the shift from
308 Human interconnectedness