FromConversion toCommunity 73
run charities had become widespread. In some cities, like Bologna, the peni-
tenti life always remained more individualistic, unstructured, and untied to
institutions like hospitals. Indeed, the Bolognese penitents do not seem even
to have established stable forms of organization for themselves until after
1250.^25 Even in the later 1200 s, the penitents preserved the markings of their
spontaneous and lay origins.
Their ad hoc religious status never sat well with clerical authorities. The
Lucca diocesan synod of 1300 set out to regulate the city’s conversi. Within
fifteen days of the promulgation of the statute, all claiming to be conversi
were to present themselves to the bishop and show written proof of their
vows, aninstrumentum conversarieissued by the rector of their chapel. The
rectors had been receiving vows from conversi who continued to live at
home, conduct secular business, and work to support themselves.^26 The con-
versi might live on their own, even practice trade, but they were not to
handle money. One wonders how the synod expected them to meet their
needs—perhaps by barter.
Religious associations of devout laity with forms similar to those of the
communal period already existed in the late Carolingian period.^27 Perhaps
the earliest example of laypeople founding a society for devotional purposes
in an Italian context comes from the mid- 900 s at Modena. This society
produced a matricula, that is, a membership list, naming those who donated
1 d. yearly for the group’s votive lights in the local church.^28 Unlike the groups
of the communal period, the members of this association did not take up any
religious observances beyond paying for candles and oil. By the sixties of the
same century, a mixed clerical and lay confraternity dedicated to Saint
James, the Congregatio Sanctae Veronensis Ecclesiae, had come into exis-
tence at Verona, and by the 1170 s this group had urban and rural branches.
The Congregatio was really a priestly confraternity, however. The laity
shared only in spiritual benefits, not in the governance or style of life.^29 At
San Cassiano d’Imola, about 1160 , laypeople had founded a rural confrater-
nity that met annually on the feast of Saint James. The ministers collected
donations and then went in procession to make candle offerings, attend sol-
emn Mass in honor of their patron, and distribute alms to the poor. The
group also provided support for poorer members, should they become sick
or die.^30 In contrast to the other two examples, this association was virtually
identical, in activities and organization, to the first documented communities
- So Mario Fanti, ‘‘Gli inizi del movimento dei disciplinati a Bologna e la confraternita di Santa
Maria della Vita,’’Bollettino della Deputazione di storia patria per l’Umbria 66 ( 1969 ): 183 – 85. - Lucca Synod ( 1300 ), 23 ,p. 220 ; 66 , pp. 239 – 40 ; repeated, p. 246. Cf. Bologna Synod ( 1310 ),
508 – 9. On this legislation, see Osheim, ‘‘Conversion,’’ 386 – 88. - Meersseman,Ordo, 1 : 34 (Carolingian parallels), pp. 35 – 67 (early rural confraternities), 68 – 112
(monastic examples), 113 – 36 (early urban examples). - Modena, Archivio Capitolare,msO.ii. 7 ; discussed in Meersseman,Ordo, 1 : 97 – 98.
- Meersseman,Ordo, 1 : 186.
- Ibid., 1 : 65 – 66.