240 CHAPTER 8|INTEREST GROUPS
DIRECT LOBBYING
When interest group staff meet with offi ceholders or bureaucrats, they plead their
case through direct lobbying, asking government offi cials to change policy in line
with the group’s goals.^20 Direct lobbying is generally aimed at offi cials and bureau-
crats who are sympathetic to the group’s goals.^21 In these eff orts, interest groups
and their representatives help like-minded legislators to secure policy changes
that they both want. The interest groups’ help can range from sharing informa-
tion about the proposed changes, to providing lists of legislators who might be per-
suaded to support the group’s goals, to drafting legislative proposals or regulations.
Interest groups also contact legislators who disagree with their goals, as well
as fence sitters (legislators who are not supporters or opponents), with the goal of
converting them into supporters. These eff orts are less extensive than the lobby-
ing of supporters, because opponents are unlikely to change their minds unless a
group can provide new information that causes them to rethink their position.direct lobbying Attempts by
interest group staff to infl uence
policy by speaking with elected
offi cials or bureaucrats.
TOP 20 SPENDERS ON LOBBYING, 1998–2012
TABLE »^ 8.1
U.S. Chamber of Commerce $885,975,680
General Electric $274,100,000
American Medical Association $274,017,500
American Hospital Association $225,269,136
Pharmaceutical Research & Manufacturers of America $224,263,920
AARP $217,612,064
National Association of Realtors $194,515,133
Blue Cross/Blue Shield $191,452,052
Northrop Grumman $180,565,253
Exxon Mobil $176,362,742
Verizon Communications $167,546,543
Edison Electric Institute $165,566,789
Boeing Company $164,139,310
Business Roundtable $162,910,000
Lockheed Martin $158,350,688
AT&T, Inc. $145,529,336
Southern Company $138,680,694
National Cable & Telecommunications Association $132,340,000
General Motors $131,704,170
Pfi zer, Inc. $126,227,268Source: “Top Spenders," http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/top.php?indexType=s (accessed 9/11/12).