274 CHAPTER 9|CONGRESS
The majority whip oversees the extensive whip system, which has three
functions: information gathering, information dissemination, and coalition
building. The whips meet regularly to discuss legislative strategy and scheduling.
The whips then pass along this information to colleagues in their respective par-
ties and indicate the party’s position on a given bill. Whips also take a headcount
of party members in the House on specifi c votes and communicate this informa-
tion to the party leaders. If a vote looks close, whips try to persuade members to
support the party’s position. The conference chair (or caucus chair for the Dem-
ocrats) runs the party meetings to elect fl oor leaders, make committee assign-
ments, and set legislative agendas. The minority party in the House has a parallel
structure: its leader is the minority leader, and the second in command is the
minority whip. (Whip comes from English fox hunting, referring to the person
who keeps the hounds from wandering too far from the pack—the whipper-in.)
The Senate leadership does not have a s much power a s t hat of t he House, most ly
because individual senators have more power than House members on account of
the Senate’s rule of unlimited debate. The majority leader and minority leader are
the leaders of their respective parties; second in command are the assistant major-
ity and minority leaders. The Senate also has a whip system, but it is not as exten-
sive as the House system. Republicans have a separate position for the conference
chair, while the Democratic leader serves also as conference chair. The country’s
vice president is offi cially the president of the Senate, but he only appears in the
chamber when needed to cast a tie-breaking vote. The Constitution also mentions
the president pro tempore of the Senate, whose formal duties involve presiding
over the Senate when the vice president is not present. This is typically the most
senior member of the majority party, although the position does not have any real
power. (In fact, the actual president pro tempore rarely presides over the Senate,
and the task is typically given to a more junior senator.)THE ROLE OF PARTIES
Political parties in Congress refl ect the individualism of the institution. In the U.S.
Congress, the parties do not impose a party line or penalize members who vote
against the party. Indeed, they have virtually no ability to impose electoral restric-
tions (such as denying the party’s nomination) on renegade members. Thus from
the perspective of a member seeking re-election, parties are more useful for what
they are not—they do not force members to vote with the party—than for what they
are. Though there are signifi cant party diff erences on many issues, on about half of
all roll call votes majorities of both parties are on the same side.
Parties in Congress have greatly strengthened since the 1960s (see Figures 9.5
A and B). Partisanship—evident when party members stick together in opposi-
tion to the other party—reached its highest levels of the post–World War II era in
the mid-1990s. About 70 percent of all roll call votes were party votes, in which
a majority of one party opposed a majority of the other party. The proportion of
party votes has since fallen but remains between 50 and 60 percent; however, in
2009 the Senate hit a high of 72 percent as contention over Barack Obama’s policy
agenda was running high. Party unity, the percentage of party members voting
together on party votes, soared during this period as well, especially in the House.
This greater cohesiveness within parties and separation across parties means
that strong party leadership is possible in Congress, but only with the consent
of party members.^18 That consent is more likely if there are strong diff erences
between the parties and homogeneity within the parties. Leaders’ primary respon-president pro tempore
A largely symbolic position usually
held by the most senior member of
the majority party in the Senate.
roll call vote A recorded vote on
legislation; members may vote yes,
no, abstain, or present.
party vote A vote in which
the majority of one party opposes
the position of the majority of the
other party.
party unity The extent to which
members of Congress in the same
party vote together on party votes.
minority leader The elected
head of the party holding the minor-
ity of seats in the House or Senate.
whip system An organization
of House leaders who work to dis-
seminate information and promote
party unity in voting on legislation.