288 CHAPTER 9|CONGRESS
the impeached offi cials. Two presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson in
the controversy over Reconstruction after the Civil War, and Bill Clinton over the
scandal involving White House intern Monica Lewinsky. However, neither presi-
dent was convicted and removed by the Senate.Conclusion
Though the details of the legislative process and the institutions of Congress can
be complicated, the basic explanations for member behavior are straightforward
when viewed in terms of the trade-off between responsiveness and responsibility.
Members of Congress want to be re-elected, so they are generally quite respon-
sive to constituents’ interests. They spend considerable time on casework, meet-
ing with people in the district and delivering benefi ts for the district. At the same
time, members are motivated to be responsible—to rise above local interests and
attend to the nation’s best interests.
The confl ict between these two impulses can create contradictory policies that
contribute to Congress’s image problem. For example, we subsidize tobacco farm-
ing at the same time that we spend billions of dollars to treat the health problems
that tobacco use creates. We have laws on water rights that encourage farmers
to irrigate the desert at the same time that we pay farmers to leave parts of their
land unplanted in areas of the country that are well suited for agriculture. These
policies, and others, refl ect both the desire to serve local interests and the norms
of reciprocity and universalism.
Considering members’ motivations is crucial to understanding how Congress
functions, but their behavior is also constrained by the institutions in which they
operate. The committee system is an important source of expertise and informa-
tion, and it provides a platform from which members can take positions and claim
credit. Parties in Congress provide coherence to the legislative agenda and help
structure voting patterns on bills. Rules and norms constrain the nature of debate
and the legislative process. Although these institutions shape members’ behavior,
members can also change those rules and institutions. Therefore, Congress has
the ability to evolve with changing national conditions and demands from voters,
groups, and the president.
In this context, much of what Congress does can be understood in terms of
the confl icts inherent in politics. How can members act responsibly without sac-
rifi cing responsiveness? Can Congress be structured in a way that allows mem-
bers to be responsive (and therefore have a better chance of getting re-elected)
without losing the ability to make unpopular decisions when needed? The exam-
ple discussed in the chapter introduction concerning the “fi scal cliff ” shows that
partisan confl ict in Congress makes it diffi cult to resolve basic disputes over
taxes and spending. But ultimately, both sides have to give up something and
compromise if we are going to solve the nation’s budget problems. Congress does
not always live up to the expectations of being the “fi rst branch” of government,
but it often does an admirable job of balancing the confl icting pressures it faces.