468 CHAPTER 15|FOREIGN POLICY
its ground forces? Can the Afghan government control its own borders and aid
its own citizens? Would terrorist organizations such as Al Qaeda, the group
that organized the September 11 attacks on the United States, return to using
Afghanistan as an organizational haven? These questions are diffi cult to answer
with certainty. Even if we could, reasonable people might reach different
conclusions. For example, suppose Afghanistan were to develop into a stable,
vibrant society if the United States kept ground forces there for another decade.
One person might conclude that staying the course would be the best option, but
another might decide that this outcome would not be worth the monetary and
human costs.
This example illustrates that we should expect disagreement over America’s
foreign policy, both in Afghanistan and elsewhere. And we should not be
surprised when these disagreements occur in government, even between
civilians and military personnel. As we discuss in Chapters 10 and 11, the very
fact that bureaucrats are experts, who know a great deal about the policies they
administer, means that they will often disagree about the best course of action in
any given situation. McChrystal was removed not because he disagreed with the
Obama administration’s policy but because that disagreement became public.
This chapter will show how other areas of foreign policy are beset with
confl ict—and how making and executing policy often requires actors to
compromise on their differences. Our discussion will also highlight how
America’s foreign and domestic policies are increasingly intertwined. Consider
the state of America’s economy. Over the last generation American politicians
have approved numerous treaties that reduced tariffs on imports and exports,
thereby generating enormous profi ts for some American companies. American
aircraft manufacturers, for example, prospered under trade liberalization,
selling passenger and cargo jets to airlines worldwide. However, trade
liberalization has hurt companies that could not respond to increased foreign
competition, such as the fi nancially troubled American auto producers that have
required substantial federal aid just to stay in business. Many of their workers
have been laid off or have taken buyouts to quit their jobs or retire early rather
than face an uncertain future of layoffs and wage cuts.
Examples of national unity in foreign policy are actually quite rare. Even
after the September 11 attacks, the initial surge of unity and common purpose
dissolved into debate over the specifi cs of America’s response—from the initial
decisions to invade Afghanistan and Iraq, to contemporary debates over how best
to fi ght the ongoing threat of terrorist attacks. Again, this confl ict is nothing new.
Throughout American history there have been many disagreements over foreign
policy issues, from whether and how to use military force or to form alliances, to
questions about foreign trade agreements and human rights policies. Although
these debates often have political consequences, with positions sometimes taken
for political gain, in the main they refl ect sincere differences of opinion; in this
sense foreign policy closely resembles domestic policy.
Finally, political process matters in foreign policy. The president’s central
role in the making of foreign policy stems in part from constitutional allocations
of executive power, such as the president’s leadership of the executive branch
and his role as commander in chief of the U.S. armed forces. The president also
benefi ts from his ability to act unilaterally, as we saw in Chapter 10. Even so,
presidents do not have complete authority to determine America’s foreign policy.
Factors such as congressional control over federal spending, as well as judicial
review exercised by federal judges, impose signifi cant limits on presidential
power in this area.CHAPTER goals
Describe the major
approaches to
understanding foreign
policy and trace how
America’s role in the world
has evolved.
¾ PAGES 469–74
Explain how the various
branches of government
shape foreign policy.
¾ PAGES 475–83
Examine the ways
American foreign policy is
implemented.
¾ PAGES 483–87
Analyze several major
areas of foreign policy
and why they are often
controversial.
¾ PAGES 487–88