66 HISTORICALRESEARCH
Types of Evidence
There are many types of written record, ranging from
eye-witness accounts of sinkings to newspaper stories of
chance finds by fishermen. The accuracy of recorded
positions and the detail of accounts will vary but this is
still a valuable, if time-consuming, source of information
for locating or identifying underwater and foreshore sites.
When using historical data, it is essential to understand
the difference between primary and secondary sources of
evidence. Primary sources are original documents produced
at the time of an event, such as ships’ and lighthouse-
keepers’ logs. Secondary sources are analyses of an event
or original documents, such as newspapers, books con-
taining information on shipwreck losses, or publications
based on primary or secondary research material.
Secondary sources can be much easier to read and very
useful because they frequently include an index. They are
often the best way to understand the basic history of a site
or event, providing sufficient knowledge in order to
research further by accessing primary data. However,
secondary sources alone are frequently insufficient for the
types of research required by maritime archaeology. Only
by consulting primary sources, and doing it thoroughly,
is it possible to avoid gross errors and the perpetuation
of myths that surround some wrecks. A typical example
of the latter is where a named ship carrying a cargo of
perishable material like spices or furs is said to be lost ‘full
of valuables’ in contemporary newspaper reports. This
description can then be translated in succeeding genera-
tions of publications into a ship full of treasure without
recognizing the true nature of the material and its likeli-
hood of survival.
Even original historical documents (primary sources)
can be partial or misleading in several ways. People only
recorded what mattered to them at the time, and
descriptions such as the nationality of a ship, or numbers
of survivors, may not be accurate. In wartime, the stress
and confusion of combat often meant that a vessel’s
location became confused. Conflict often affects the
survival of documents, especially from the losing side. Re-
cords may not reflect the entire contents or character of a
site or vessel. Sometimes shipping companies or masters
intended to ship one thing but, in the event, sent another
(especially in times of war). Mistakes during loading
and unofficial cargoes (smuggling) can complicate the
situation. In addition, cargo manifests and other historical
data rarely cover the personal possessions of crew and
passengers.
Records may depend on the subsequent history of the
site. For instance, administrative boundaries change over
time, as do record-keeping organizations. There can also
be changes of ownership of documents, archives or even
locations of archives. Vessels can also change hands
owing to purchase, capture or theft. For example, the
seventeenth century warship Hazardous was originally
owned by the French before being captured by the
British and put into use as a warship, so archives relating
to the vessel exist in both France and England.
Factors such as the destruction or loss of documents,
deliberate errors, lies and accidental mistakes further
complicate the interpretation and understanding of
primary sources. In addition, many sites are simply
unrecorded, especially prior to the sixteenth century, and
often much later in remoter areas.Locating Primary Sources
Local and national archives throughout the world contain
vast amounts of historical information relevant to
underwater and foreshore archaeology and there are also
many documents in private hands. A major drawback is
that many documents, even in major collections, may
be uncatalogued. Even if they are listed by their title or
main subject, the contents may not have been read since
the writer completed the document. Of course, many
archives are in good order and can be investigated by the
diligent historian with great success. Ships’ logbooks and
cargo manifests may be relatively easy to track down, if
they have survived, but important information about
specific vessels, people or events can turn up in apparently
unrelated documents. These unexpected discoveries are
one of the joys of historical research but, until all
archives are catalogued and accessible, tracking down
primary information about a specific site will usually be
a difficult task.
Archives can include a wide variety of different mater-
ials. While the most common of these are written or
printed other sources include:- maps and charts;
- ships’ plans and models;
- iconography and imagery (such as carvings, paint-
ings and even graffiti); - oral history (such as recordings of survivors, or
witnesses to an event); - place-names;
- aerial photographs;
- memorial plaques and stones (figure 9.1), rolls of
honour, etc. in churches, town halls and public
buildings.
Each category listed above can include a variety of
types and formats, depending on the country or area and
its administrative history. Some examples of the most use-
ful types of primary documentary evidence for maritime
archaeology include: