BASICPRINCIPLES – MAKING THEMOST OF THECLUES 23
somewhere. It is important to be aware of where and
when relevant research is being conducted and to seek
appropriate assistance when required. A simple maxim is:
‘Everything that happened on this site has left a trace
- it just needs recognition’.
A considerable number of clues can be found on every
archaeological site, all over the world. How do archae-
ologists tell others about their evidence? Indeed, how do
they remind themselves about their findings in ten years’
time? Of course, it is vital to record a descriptionof the
clues, from the structure, sediments and contents, so that
everyone can understand and use the evidence. If they are
described reliably and consistently, clues can be divided
not just into structure, sediments and contents but also
into types of structure or sediment or contents. A sword
is called a sword because it has certain characteristics
that it shares with a group of edged metal weapons. That
group can be called the sword group, providing a con-
venient and informative way of referring to all weapons
sharing those characteristics. The sword group can be split
into smaller groups in the same way (e.g. rapiers, sabres),
based on common features shared by a particular group
of swords within the general group.
This process of classification according to general
type is called typology. The value of typology is that an
unknown piece of structure or object with characteristics
that coincide with a previously described type can con-
tribute to all the research that has ever been done on
that type of clue. This can include use, development,
construction, date, origin, etc. A mystery find can be
transformed from a headache to a source of informa-
tion if the find is recorded and publicized appropriately.
Of course, it would be optimistic to assume that every
typological series is totally correct. Such groups are
usually built up using evidence from a wide range of
sites. The more sites that produce evidence that supports
the suggested typology, the more secure it becomes.
Some typologies are based on very few finds and faulty
assumptions. If a particular piece of evidence does not fit
the accepted scheme, it should not be ignored or altered
to make it fit. The information may prove important
in improving the typology.
Context: On any archaeological site, it is important
to consider how the clues arrived there and how the site
was formed. The dictionary defines ‘context’ as ‘the cir-
cumstances in which an event occurs’. In archaeology,
‘context’ has taken on a particular and specific meaning
that is central to the study of archaeological sites. It has
come to mean the individual, recognizable steps in the
build-up of a site.
The following is an example of how an archaeologist
might detect a grave. When the grave is initially created,
the original soil or rock is dug away, a body is placed
in the hole and the soil or rock placed back in a more
jumbled state. From the surface a slight difference in
colour and texture may be apparent, showing the loca-
tion of the filled-in grave. Excavation will reveal the
fill of the grave within the hole, which was cut out of
the original soil or rock, whose cut sides will be clear.
Under the fill of the grave, but lying over the bottom
of the hole, are the remains of the body. The original
process of burial (cut–body–fill) are reflected in the
archaeological remains.
This simple site has three steps; three sets of relevant
circumstances or contexts:1 Cut Whatever was on the site before the grave
(perhaps other graves) has been disturbed and dug
away. Evidence has been lost (or moved and mixed
up) as well as created. Different-shaped graves were
dug at different times in the past. Bodies can also
be placed in holes dug for other purposes. These
holes can be left open for a long time before being
filled in.
2 Body As well as the remains of the body, other
things such as ‘gifts’ for the afterlife, wrapping or
coffins can be placed within the grave. These often
reflect a particular set of beliefs. Sometimes two or
more bodies are placed together at the same time.
These activities are taking place well below the
ground surface – possibly at the level of much
older layers.
3 Fill The excavated material is returned to the
hole, possibly including any material from earlier
graves or remains which were disturbed. Although
material from earlier periods may be found in
the fill of the grave, material in use after the grave
was filled in should not appear. Some holes are
filled in in stages or left to fill in naturally over
time. Therefore they may have several different
fills, reflecting the different methods and speeds of
infilling. Air spaces in coffins or burial chambers may
collapse and only be visible in the subsidence of
the layers of fill above. Some objects, even some
bodies, only survive as stains or fragments at the
bottom of the fill.The whole process is then repeated when the next grave
dug. Some graveyards have been used for hundreds of
years. Through the process of archaeological excavation,
which examines each context in order, the complex series
of inter-cutting graves or contexts can be broken down
into the sequence of cut–body–fill.
The example of a simple grave indicates the importance
of understanding contexts. By looking not just at the
objects (the bones, the coffin or the grave goods), much
more may be learnt. For example: