SAFETY ONARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES UNDERWATER AND ON THE FORESHORE 39
designated crossing-place. If a safe means of crossing the
road cannot be found, the decision may be taken not to
cross the road at all. Normally this process is carried out
in our heads. A hazard is identified, the level and type
of risk assessed and measures put in place to control the
likelihood of being hurt (up to and including simply
avoiding the hazard).
As part of any project design it is essential that there is
a formalized process of risk assessment that raises every-
one’s awareness of potential risks and hazards. While
most people are familiar with crossing a road, not all pro-
ject members will have the experience to understand all
the risks associated with a project. The process of identi-
fying potential risks and means of mitigation and com-
mitting them to paper enables everyone to benefit from
the knowledge of more experienced project members.
This has numerous advantages to the organizer of a com-
plex operation like an archaeological project, including the
following:
- Hazards and risks are identified in advance and
assessed in a systematic manner. - Safety information can be communicated to all
project members quickly and concisely. - Control measures can be included in the planning
stage. - In the event of an accident, it will help identify
whether the problem could have been avoided in the
planning phase.
Note: Project diving supervisors consider it best
practice to prepare risk assessments and diving project
plans (see below) for each part of the diving operation.
Licensing authorities, funding bodies and government
agencies, and even insurers, may require it. Once the
project is under way, the risk assessment should not
be forgotten. It should be referred to frequently; as con-
ditions change, different control measures may be triggered.
It is also considered good practice to carry out additional
risk assessments as part of individual dive plans.
DIVING PROJECT PLAN
Where diving operations are involved, the project design
should also include a diving project plan. This details
the diving work, resources and equipment required to
achieve the project design’s objectives. To avoid confusion
it is important that diving operations are conducted in a
standardized and safe manner and the plan should clar-
ify what recognized diving code of practice is to be used
(see below). It should also contain a risk assessment that
explains how the identified risks are to be controlled.
A site-specific risk assessment should be completed prior
to the start of any individual diving operation. Every-
body involved in the project should be aware of the div-
ing project plan, which should, as a minimum, consider:- who is to be in control of diving operations;
- sea conditions, underwater visibility, pollution,
depth and temperature; - access to and from the shore/boat/platform (which
must include the emergency recovery of an in-
capacitated diver, ideally within 3 minutes of the
casualty reaching the surface); - breathing-gas mixture and equipment needed;
- number of personnel (including those who are not
part of the dive team) and their experience; - emergency procedures, including the means of
recovering an incapacitated diver, the location of and
proximity to emergency facilities (e.g. decompres-
sion chambers) and medical expertise; - the method chosen for the dive (i.e. surface supply
or scuba), stating the safety reasons for the choice,
which should be made with consideration of the task
at hand and without slavishly following one par-
ticular method or another; - a casualty evacuation plan and an identified means
of summoning further emergency assistance without
requiring essential personnel to leave the dive site.
CODES OF PRACTICE
One widely used method of benefiting from the experi-
ences of other fieldworkers is to use a ‘code of (best)
practice’. These comprise a list of recommendations or
standards, usually issued by a relevant organization, which
give a guide to what has worked or been found acceptable
in the past. It is recommended that a ‘code of diving
practice’ is adopted for each project. The recording of
diving operations must be given as much emphasis as
any other technical part of the project. Personal dive-logs
should be maintained as well as a project log of dive times
and conditions.
Most codes of practice are either generalized or very
site-specific, which makes the universal adoption of any
existing code difficult. It is advisable that project organizers
carefully consider all safety aspects of their project and write
a project-specific code of practice. An existing code is
unlikely to fit another site exactly and its adoption could
lead to gaps in safety rules and procedures. As new tech-
niques and procedures are adopted and developed, codes
of practice will require updating. In addition, the regula-
tions of governments with regard to the health and safety
of those employed on diving operations will vary from
country to country. It is important that project diving
supervisors fully understand the regulations relating to the