pests, limits the incidence of plant disease, and avoids the impact of adverse
weather on the plants. Soil is not necessary for this type of production, as the
plants are grown in an inert media saturated with a solution of water and plant food
that provides all the nutrients necessary for the plant to thrive. In some cases indi-
vidual plants are often fed via a system of drip irrigation, which greatly reduces
the amount of water required, another major advantage in the process. Artificial
lighting in these facilities can supplement natural sunlight, and in the United
States, yields may be 6–8 times what a comparable field would produce. A related
approach is utilized in aquaculture, in which both plant and animal products are
produced in a confined aquatic space, usually a pond or large tanks. A large per-
centage of fish and shellfish are now produced this way rather than being harvested
from the ocean or fresh-water bodies.
Animal products have also seen enormous increases in yields due to agribusiness
advances. Much of the world’s meat and eggs is produced using factory farming
techniques, which cluster animals in high-density enclosures. These facilities allow
for intensive farming and maximum output, and advocates of these production strat-
egies argue that they are not only the most efficient mode of production, but that
they provide humane conditions for livestock. An example of the increased effi-
ciency may be seen in the fact that over the last 40 years, the number of hog farms
in the United States has declined precipitously, but production of pork meat prod-
ucts has greatly increased, as hog farming has shifted to factory farming. There is
no question that such approaches to meat production have allowed the ever-rising
demand for animal products to be met, but the new production techniques have
brought new challenges and problems as well. The large scale of factory farming
operations and the high density of animal confinement results in environmental
challenges, as large amounts of waste, noise, and other undesirable side effects must
be addressed and properly contained. Moreover, ethical questions concerning the
welfare of animals have become a major issue in North America and Europe, with
many animal rights advocates calling for the curtailment or complete abandonment
of some procedures, such as the removal of the beaks of poultry and the use of so-
called “sow stalls” for breeding pigs. Some countries in Europe and a few U.S.
states have limited or banned the use of some confinement techniques, although
defenders of factory farming suggest that these procedures are necessary to prevent
animals from injuring themselves or other livestock. Factory farmers also contend
that producing animal products on a scale that will meet future demand requires
the continuation of confinement and mass-production strategies.
Concern over agribusiness production techniques has led to a number of alter-
natives. Critics question thesustainable developmentof some agribusiness pro-
duction techniques. The rise oforganic farmingis in many cases in direct
response to concerns over the mass production strategies pursued by large farming4 Agribusiness