the margins of urban space, enjoying the benefits of urban life from a distance
and thereby avoiding many of the disadvantages of residing within the city proper,
such as higher crime rates, congestion, higher taxes, higher levels of pollution, etc.
In the 1970s and 1980s a trend of “counter-urbanization” was identified by urban
geographers. Counter-urbanization occurred as urban populations voluntarily decen-
tralized, with thousands of residents moving away from larger metropolitan areas,
especially the emergingmegalopolisalong the eastern seaboard, into smaller
communities lying outside the urban zone, or to smaller urban places located at some
distance. More sophisticated and extensive transportation networks, including
commuter rail linkages and expanded highways, provided the opportunity to live at
a greater distance from the urban environment, but to retain employment there, as
well as occasionally enjoying the entertainment and economic benefits the urban
center typically offers. To offset the loss of residents to suburbs and rural areas,
metropolitan authorities frequently use a strategy ofgentrification, which may have
the effect of attracting permanent residents, or revitalizing existing business districts
to draw visitors for shopping, dining, and entertainment opportunities.
In many cities in the developing world, extremely rapid and unregulated urbani-
zation has led to many problems, including congestion of transportation systems,
Urbanization 353Rio de Janeiro is the second-largest city in Brazil, and one of the largest in South America. This photo
indicates the intensive development of the urban environment in this coastal city, which serves a
large hinterland located in the interior of the country. (Photo courtesy of Reuel R. Hanks)