The Phenomenon of Leadership 17
of social, educational, and personal experiences throughout life, including both
classroom and experiential education. Yet unlike most aspects of a person’s fixed
characteristics, they are subject to continuous reinterpretation and modification,
as mediated by new experiences, the powers of practical intelligence, and for-
mal programs of education and personal development. Although highly variable
according to each individual, few would claim that thoughtful efforts to develop
the appropriate interpersonal and behavioral competencies are without effect.
Knowledge about leadership can be appropriated for the practice of it, especially
if it is tied to an effective set of systematic methods, as one finds in an effective
strategy process.
Knowledge, Skills, and Expertise
At the other end of the spectrum are attributes of leadership that are clearly
subject to conventional forms of teaching and learning. Always within limits set
by motivation and talent, it is obviously possible to teach people how to improve
judgment through knowledge, to achieve expertise in complex fields, and to
use complicated systems of decision making and management—all of which are
required in a strategy process. In these contexts, the exercise of leadership itself
is closely tied to acquiring and applying knowledge through basic and applied
disciplines. Leaders in any walk of life will only be able to lead their colleagues if
they have a mastery of the intellectual and practical tools of their trade, whether
they work on Main Street or Wall Street, in a courtroom or a classroom.
Leadership Education and Development
The possibilities of leadership education and development have been seized by
virtually every large organization, so that it has become something of a profession
unto itself. Leadership programs of all sorts are now offered in most corpora-
tions and government agencies, and in many colleges and universities. We should
emphasize, however, that many of the programs do not instruct us consistently or
precisely about the possibilities of teaching leadership as a way to motivate change
and to set directions for the future. They sometimes appear to have a confused and
confusing agenda, much of which consists of different forms of management train-
ing or executive development that focus on the skills needed for a specific posi-
tion. They can include everything from computer literacy to running a successful
meeting to deepening personal self-awareness. Many corporations use a variety of
developmental methods, including mentoring, coaching, formal education, and
developmental assignments, to enhance an executive’s leadership readiness.
In effect, the activities and programs that go under the name of leadership
development are often quite distinct enterprises. Most of them are valid and
valuable in their own ways. As long as expectations are realistic, there is good
reason to believe that such efforts can make an incremental contribution to
a person’s effectiveness as a positional leader, especially in terms of enlarged