Standing Problems 233The discussion will begin with a substantive discussion of Nietzsche and Heidegger,
both of whom in different ways set the tone of the postmodern debate in the twen-
tieth century. It then turns to a closer critical scrutiny of the development of recent
postmodern and poststructural political theories.^1
Nietzsche and the Twilight of the Idols
The roots of postmodern argument lie within Friedrich Nietzsche’s thought. In many
ways Nietzsche encapsulates the whole postmodern momentum. The specific roots
of postmodern political theory in fact lie in Nietzsche’s deeply negative appraisal of
foundational metaphysics (more precisely, the metaphysics of modernity). Therefore,
although Nietzsche is not precisely a twentieth-century writer, he nonetheless encom-
passes most of the dilemmas and themes of twentieth-century postmodern theory in
a very effective manner.
Nietzsche is a deeply paradoxical figure and it is always difficult to get a handle on
his thought, partly because he eschewed the whole idea of system. He has also been
many things to many people. Numerous artists, poets, and writers have claimed him
for their own. His short aphoristically and stylistically pithy books no doubt have
contributed to this popularity. However, he also had a profound influence in certain
domains of philosophy and political theory. There have thus been many Nietzsches.
There is the existentialist Nietzsche (Camus), the fascist Nietzsche (Mussolini), the
Nietzsche of moral relativism and moral disintegration (Bloom), the Nietzsche who
took the Enlightenment to its moral demise in nihilism (Alisdair MacIntyre), and
the feminists’ Nietzsche (Kristeva). Nietzsche has been recruited for vegetarianism,
Zionism, sexualliberation, socialism, andallmannerofcauses. Thepresentdiscussion
is more bounded. It tries to show his formative impact on one important dimension of
twentieth-century political theory. This impact cannot necessarily be divorced from
many of the other views mentioned here, however space is limited, therefore the aim
is to set out the broad parameters of his theory and its influence, not to discuss the
minutiae of its effects.
In exploring Nietzsche’s impact on political theory the discussion begins first with
his more negative critique of metaphysics, then turns to his critique of epistemology
and his own doctrine of perspectivism. Second, it moves to his critique of morality
and religion. Perspectivism also underpins the conception of morality. The critique
of morality in turn allows us to see more clearly his critical conception of normative
theory. The third section of the discussion is a brief accounting on his ‘positive ideas’.
This focuses on his conception of individualism, his formulation of theübermensch
(overman), his notion of the will to power, eternal recurrence, and, finally, the
aesthetic conception of life. This will then facilitate insights into his political ideas
and their impact.
First, metaphysics, for Nietzsche, is the ‘science...which deals with the fun-
damental errors of mankind—as if they were fundamental truths’ (Nietzsche
1968: appendix D, 192). Traditional metaphysics is largely a useless phenomenon