1048
See also: Morse, Samuel Finley Breese; Daguerre,
Louis-Jacques-Mandé; Daguerreotype; Calotype and
Talbotype; Muybridge, Eadweard James; Ruskin,
John; Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugène; Courbet,
Gustave; Eakins, Thomas; and Nudes.
Further Reading
Biagell, Matthew, Albert Bierstadt, Watson-Guptill Publica-
tion.
Coke, Van Daren, The Painter and the Photograph: from Dela-
croix to Warhol, Albuerquerque: University of New Mexico
Press, 1964.
Forsberg, Diane, “Erastus Salisbury Field: Mezzographs and
Other Experiments with Photography in Portrait Painting.”
In Painting and Portrait Making in the American Northeast,
235–246. Boston.
Henisch, Heinz, and Bridget, Heniscxh, The Photographic Expe-
rience 1839–1914: Images and Attitudes, Pennsylvania State
University Press, 1993.
Johnson, Sona, In Monet’s Light: Theodore Robinson at Giverny
Baltimore Museum (exhibition catalog) 2005.
Ogden, Kate Nearpass, “Mussing on Medium: Photography,
Painting, and the Plein Air Sketch,” Prospects 18 (1993).
Pascall, Douglas, “The Camera Artist,” in Sewell, Darrel, Thomas
Eakins Philadelphia Museum of Art 2002 (exhibition catalog)
pp 239–255.
Ruggles, Mervyn, “Photographs on a Photographic Base,” Jour-
nal for American Institute for Conservation, vol. 24, no. 2,
article 4 (1985): 92–103.
Tucker, Mark, and Mica Gutman, “Photographs and the Making
of Paintings” in
Sewell, Darrel, Thomas Eakins Philadelphia Museum of Art 2002
(exhibition catalog), 229–238.
Sharf, Aaron, Art and Photography, Pelican Books, 1974.
Verplanck, Anne, “The Art of John Henry Brown.” The Magazine
Antiques, November 2004.
Weisberg, Gabriel, “P.A.J. Dagnan-Bouvert and the Illusion of
Photographic Naturalism.” Arts Magazine, April 1982.
Wilgus, Jack, Professor Woodward: Pioneer Photographic Inven-
tor and Educator, Forays, Spring, 1996.
PANORAMIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Since its birth, photography sought to compete with
human vision by the reproduction of reality; with the
panorama, it succeeded in exceeding it. The panorama
indicates, in photography, an image of the broadest
possible angle of vision (up to 360°); it thus exceeds
the extent covered by an ordinary lens (50°) and that
covered by the human binocular vision (approx. 160°).
It follows in the fashion of the painted panoramas pre-
sented in specially built rotundas, whose prototype was
patented by the Scot Robert Barker in 1787 and who
knew a great vogue in the fi rst half of the nineteenth cen-
tury. The painters also had the idea to use photography
to save time in the realization of their painted scenes.
One of the most famous examples is the The Siege of
the Malakoff by Colonel Charles Langlois, made of 14
plates, created in 1855 and inaugurated in 1860 on the
Champs-Elysées. To help in the project, he was assisted
in the photography by Leon Méhédin and in the printing
by Frederic Martens.
A photographic panorama can measure a few cen-
timeters or several meters, and consist of only one or
several assembled prints. It is obtained by means of a
«wide angle» lens or from an ordinary lens assembled
on a special apparatus. The nineteenth century distin-
guished four categories of panoramic images: panora-
mas of views, consisting of a lengthened image, carried
out with only one lens and in only one take; panoramas
formed of the juxtaposition of several views; panoramas
realized by a mobile lens allowing the coverage of an
angle of 150° (since 1845); and panopticons, views
embracing a complete horizon or more (since 1890).
Initially, the juxtaposition of several prints proved to
be an effective means to widen the fi eld of vision; but
the photographers were not satisfi ed with this type of
properly pictorial representation. The photographic
panorama acquired its autonomy thanks to the invention
of special apparatuses known as panoramic.
On June 23, 1845, Frederic Martens, who in the
1830s created engraved panoramas of the large towns of
Europe then towards 1840 created engravings according
to daguerreotypes for the Lerebours’ Excursions daguer-
riennes, presented at the Academy of Science the fi rst
panoramic room for daguerreotype; this room, known
as also Mégascope, was marketed by Lerebours. The
principle is as follows: an ordinary lens laid down on a
pivot traverses all the points of the horizon according
to a horizontal movement produced by a crank; this
objective makes it possible to take photographs of 12 ×
38 cm, very clear on the surface, embracing an angle of
150°. The daguerreotype marries the cylindrical curve of
a drum; thanks to this curve, the points most unequally
distant are brought to the surface of the plate, which
is rectifi ed after the shot is taken. The clearness of the
image is due to a vertical narrow slit at the bottom of
the box which follows the objective in its movement;
this slit lets only the central rays act on the sensitive
layer. An expensive and cumbersome device, being
able to produce only daguerreotypes, this apparatus was
dedicated to a restricted use.
In 1848, Napoleon Garella, a mining engineer in Al-
giers, eager to apply panoramic photography to his work,
obtained two tests rectifi ed with its “planopanoramic,”
“rectilinear” apparatus, which did not require bending
the plates of daguerreotypes: the sensitive plate turned
with the lens, which allowed the use of plain negatives.
In 1850, Peuvion adapted this device to negative glass.
The fi eld of vision covered by this type of apparatus is
of 180°, that is to say half of a view. In 1856, Martens
Schuller, nephew of Martens, reached a similar result
starting from the invention of his relative, by applying
the principle of the revolving unit of Garella to the ap-