1102
in Europe, Bourne and Shepherd in India, the Bierstadts,
Notman in Canada, and Carleton Watkins, William H
Jackson and others in the United States.
Specialist industrial and architectural photographers
emerged to photograph the many great construction
projects of the Victorian era, aided by more sophisticated
equipment, faster emulsions and greater consistency
and reliability.
Photographic associations had, from the 1850s, been
open to all who were interested in the medium, their
meetings populated by amateurs and professionals
alike. As the century progressed, however, the require-
ments of amateur and professional began to diverge.
While the amateur was still concerned with experiment,
with exhibition and with the interchange of ideas, the
professional faced a widening range of challenges, not
least of which were to do with copyright and the dupli-
cation and dissemination of images. The introduction
of cheap methods of photomechanical reproduction of
photographs made the resolution of these issues even
more pressing.
Until the mid 1870s, the use of photographs as book
illustration was easy to control, but with the advent of
the Woodburytype, Autotype, and other pigment printing
processes, it became easier and cheaper. Walter Bentley
Woodbury’s Treasure Spots of the World published in
1875—and often described as the world’s fi rst ‘coffee-
table book’—heralded the dawn of a potentially large
new market for professional photographers.
Copyright laws throughout the fi rst three decades
of photography did not include the image, giving the
photographer little protection against the commercial
exploitation of his/her work by others.
In most countries of the world, by the end of the
century, the concept of automatic copyright in a pho-
tograph was still decades in the future. In the UK, as
copyright in an individual image had to be registered
at Stationers’ hall, and a small fee paid per image, few
photographers exercised a right which they had enjoyed
since the 1870s.
Once newspapers and magazines could reproduce
photographs, the professional became open to frequent
exploitation. Individually the photographer was pow-
erless. Collectively, the profession could bring about
change. Thus the century ended, and the 20th century
began, with the formation of fi rst professional associa-
tions in Britain and the United States.
John Hannavy
See also: Wolcott, Alexander Simon and John
Johnson; Lemercier, Lerebours & Bareswill; Beard,
Richard; Talbot, William Henry Fox; Henneman,
Nicolaas; Disdéri, André-Adolphe-Eugène;
Southworth, Albert Sands, and Josiah Johnson
Hawes; Whipple, John Adams; Brady, Mathew
B.; Mayall, John Jabez Edwin; Nadar (Gaspard-
Félix Tournachon); Fenton, Roger; Delamotte,
Philip Henry; Gardner, Alexander; Wilson, George
Washington; Frith, Francis; Valentine, James and
Sons; Beato, Antonio; Bonfi ls, Fèlix, Marie-Lydie
Cabanis, and Adrien; Braun, Adolphe; Notman,
William & Sons; Canada; Societies, groups,
institutions, and exhibitions in Canada; Watkins,
Alfred; Jackson, William Henry; and Woodbury,
Walter Bentley.Further Reading
McCauley, Elizabeth Anne, Industrial Madness, Commercial
Photography in Paris, 1848–1871 New Haven and London:
Yale University Press, 1994.
Henisch, Heinz K., and Henisch, Bridget A., The Photographic
Experience 1839–1914, University Park: Pennsylvania State
University Press, 1994.
Taft, Robert, Photography and the American Scene, New York:
Dover, 1964.
Welling, William, Photography in America: The Formative Years,
New York: Thomas Y Crowell, 1978.PHOTOGRAPHY IN ART
CONSERVATION
Over the centuries the restoration of works of art has
been both a business, and a source of additional earn-
ings for artists: Paintings, sculptures and buildings were
often part of ritual, or other functional contexts, and
often the preservation of such use value was considered
to be of more importance than either the artistic value
or the historical authenticity of a work of art. Thus, if
artists could not preserve the piece by completing or
repairing it, they were qualifi ed to replace or remake
the lost piece.
Along with the general status of works of art in
society, the position of restoration changed during the
19th century: The authenticity of the pieces themselves
started to rank higher, although it remained disputed
how restoration as a profession should present itself:
Theoreticians such as Violett Le Duc took the position
that in cases of doubt, the reconstruction of historical
monuments and works of art was necessary, while John
Ruskin advanced the view that restoration was the most
brutal form of destruction. This juxtaposition remained
fundamental for debates on conservation well into the
20th century, for example in the disputes surrounding
the preservation of monuments in which Georg Dehio
and Alois Riegl took part. These controversies affected
the work of the restorers.
Until well into the 19th century it had been the task
of the artists’ appointed gallery directors to restore the
paintings within collections. Since the 1850s, restoration
increasingly became a profession in its own right, one