1223
(1819–1900) in Teneriffe in 1856. But even by the time
of the pioneering oceanographic expedition undertaken
by HMS Challenger in the years 1872–1876, initially
championed by the Royal Society and led by its Fellows
William Benjamin Carpenter FRS (1813–1885) and
Charles Wyville Thomson FRS (1830–1882), things
were changing. The expedition had its share of ‘fi rsts’
(including images of iceberg) but more important were
the large numbers of photographs taken as an integral
part of the expedition scientifi c record, in the same
manner as note-taking, specimen collection and instru-
ment readings.
Keith Moore
See also: Wedgwood, Thomas; Davy, Sir Humphry;
Niépce de Saint-Victor, Claude Félix Abel; Talbot,
William Henry Fox; Cameron, Henry Herschel Hay;
Brewster, Henry Craigie; Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-
Mandé; Hunt, Robert; Maddox, Richard Leach; and
Muybridge, Eadweard James.
Further Reading
Gleason, Mary Louise. The Royal Society of London: years of
reform 1827-1847, New York: Garland, 1991.
Mallet, Robert. The Royal Society of London’s photographs of the
1857 earthquake (in Naples) [facsimiles of the originals, some
stereoscopic, in the archives of the Royal Society], Bologna:
SGA, Storia Geofi sica Ambiente, 1987.
Matthew, H.C.G. and Harrison, Brian (eds). Oxford Dictionary
of National Biography [for articles on individual scientists
cited] 60 vols. Oxford: University Press, 2004.
Schaaf, Larry J. Out of the shadows: Herschel, Talbot, & the
invention of photography, New Haven: Yale University Press,
1992.
Schaaf, Larry J. Sun gardens: Victorian photograms by Anna
Atkins, New York and Oxford: Aperture, Phaidon, 1985.
Thomas, Ann (ed). Beauty of another order: photography in
science, New Haven and London: Yale University Press in
association with National Gallery of Canada, 1997.
Tucker, Jennifer. Nature exposed: photography as eyewitness
in Victorian science, Baltimore: John Hopkins University
Press, 2005.
Ware, Mike. Cyanotype: the history, science and art of photo-
graphic printing in Prussian blue, London: Science Museum,
1999
Ware, Mike. Gold in photography: the art and history of chryso-
type, Brighton: ffotoffi lm publishing, 2006.
RUDGE, JOHN ARTHUR ROEBUCK
(1837–1903)
English photographer
Born in Bath, England, 26 July 1837. His father Henry
Rudge, a wood carver, and his mother Christiana, were
middle-class reformers. By 1861 Rudge was lecturing
on electricity, experimenting with an electric model
train and an electric boat, and in 1863 was listed as a
“philosophical instrument maker.” In the 1860s or 70s
he projected simple silhouette moving images with a
“Wheel of Life” lantern slide. In 1875 Rudge created
the Biophantic Lantern. A carousel with seven slides
moved intermittently around the lamphouse. Rudge
became associated with portrait photographer William
Friese-Greene, and probably initiated Friese-Greene’s
interest in motion photography. They produced various
motion effects with glass slide sequences.
Rudge’s “Jumbo Funniosities” (c.1882), projected on
a more developed machine, featured sequentially posed
photographs of a toy elephant; a precursor of stop-mo-
tion motion picture animation. Another device featured
four converging lenses to project a static slide bearing
four portrait photographs. A rotating shutter directed the
light to each one in turn, creating a limited movement
effect. About 1887 he screened with his last machine,
the Biphantascope, a motion series of 12 photographs
of ‘A Boy in an Eton Collar.’ A lifelong bachelor, Rudge
died in Bath on 3 January 1903.
Stephen HerbertRUSKIN, JOHN (1819–1900)
Art critic and social commentator who took a keen
interest in photography
John Ruskin was, and still remains, best known for his
art criticism and social commentary. His many artistic
pursuits including drawing and watercolour painting,
designs of various kinds, poetry and other literary
works, have been assimilated into a cannon that re-
veals the breadth and depth of Ruskin’s originality. His
fi rst four major publications, volumes one and two of
Modern Painters (1843 and 1846), The Seven Lamps of
Architecture (1848) and The Stones of Venice (1852),
established his reputation as a writer of powerful intel-
lect and rare ability to convey both the experience and
the signifi cance of the act of seeing. These publications
also demonstrated Ruskin’s commitment to the social
responsibility of art. Ruskin was a prolifi c writer as the
39 volumes of his ‘Works’ testify but he was also an elo-
quent public speaker who lectured on a dazzling array of
subjects, both before and after he became the fi rst Slade
Professor of Fine Art at Oxford in 1869. Writing almost
a century later in 1964, Kenneth Clark pronounced that
merely to read Ruskin was accepted proof of possession
of a soul and, from the numerous editions of his publi-
cations, he was read extensively. His legacy extends to
such different individuals as Oscar Wilde, Alfred Milner,
Arnold Tonybee, Cecil Rhodes and the numerous realist
landscape artists of the second half of the nineteenth
century. Ruskin’s importance to the history of photog-
raphy is that he made many references to it during a
period of over sixty years, he employed it intermittently
in his publications and lectures, he recommended it as a
drawing aid, he purchased photographs and, during the