1258
The x-ray, possessing unusual properties but detect-
able on conventional plates, was discovered by Wilhelm
Röntgen in 1895. Working with a luminescent screen
and a cathode ray tube, the hitherto unrecognised rays
revealed themselves “by making darkness visible,” when
Röntgen placed his hand in the ray’s path and revealed
the internal bone structure. X-ray techniques opened the
way to non-invasive probing of the soft tissues of the
human body, teeth, fractured limbs, Egyptian mummies,
precious stones, machinery and metal castings. The
applications in medicine alone prompted The Lancet
(1896) to describe the technique as “the searchlight of
photography.” It was seen as “photography of the invis-
ible.” Relishing the chance to photograph the invisible,
Josef Maria Eder teamed up with Eduard Valenta in
1896 to produce a series of radiographic studies, that
were acclaimed for their artistic content as much as the
scientifi c disclosures.
Once the value of x-radiography was accepted,
progress was swift. Exposures of quarter an hour were
reduced to a few minutes and the nineteenth-century
pioneering efforts contributed substantially to the twen-
tieth-century techniques of ultra-sound, pulse echo
recording, and tomography based on positron emission.
Radiotracers were employed on cadavers in 1896 but
by 1927, the technique of angiography had become an
in vivo procedure. The fi rst autoradiograph emerged in
1904, and in 1912, x-rays were used to produce diffrac-
tion patterns of crystals.
Not all the applications of photography were suc-
cessful and many ideas for taking advantage of photog-
raphy either failed to materialise, or did not fulfi l the
requirement. In a review of progress in 1888, Dr. C.H.
Bothamley deplored the lack of “scientifi c method.”
His thesis was that few people had the ability to plan
satisfactory experiments, and some research failed to
establish “the existence of a given set of phenomena.”
In his opinion, investigators sometimes drew incorrect
conclusions from their data, and Bothamley criticised
results that did not distinguish between “that which is
actually established and that which is only rendered
probable or possible.” His remedy was “systematic and
somewhat severe training.”
He recommended the photographic literature of the
day, and accepted “progress must necessarily be slow
until a better knowledge of the art of experiment ...
become more widely diffused....” The journals fulfi lled
their responsibility by publishing papers from the univer-
sities, academies and institutes in Europe and America.
Just as important were the abstracts and reprinted texts
from overseas journals, such as La Nature (France), the
Bulletin de la Société Françoise de Photographie, the
American Journal of Photography, and the Philadelphia
Photographer (USA). The Photographic News included
regular features from correspondents in Germany and
France, and The British Journal of Photography main-
tained a column of continental notes and news.
Photography made satisfactory contributions to nine-
teenth-century science for three reasons:- It was welcomed as a means of securing reliable
proof that had a degree of permanence and could be
distributed among colleagues - It documented phenomena and scientifi c events in
ways that replaced the need for human observa-
tions - It could be allied to existing optical equipment, and
could be incorporated in the design of new apparatus.
In making use of photography for constructive purposes,
progress was never in doubt and a secure nineteenth-
century foundation provided confi dence for twentieth-
century investigators, who then achieved advances as
new materials, methods and techniques were intro-
duced.
Ron Callender
See also: Société Française de la Photographie;
Talbot, William Henry Fox; and Muybridge,
Eadweard.
Further Reading
Abney, W. de W., “On Photographic Operations in the Recent Arc-
tic Expedition.” The Photographic News, XX, 614, (1876).
Darius, J, (1984), Beyond Vision, Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Hunt, R., “Photography Considered in Relation to its Educa-
tional and Practical Value.” The Photographic News, I, 242,
(1859).
Jones, B.E., (ed.), (1974), Encyclopedia of Photography, (reprint
of 1911 edit.), New York: Arno Press.
Janssen, M. J., “Photography and Astronomy.” The Photographic
News, XX, 614, (1876).
“Photography in and out of the studio.” The Photographic News,
XX, 529, (1876).
The British Association for the Advancement of Science, The
Photographic News I (8th October 1858).
Thomas, A. (ed.), (1997), Beauty of Another Order, New Haven
& London: Yale University Press.SCOVILL & ADAMS
Photographic apparatus and supply fi rm
Scovill & Adams, a photographic apparatus and supply
fi rm, succeeded the photographic division of the Sco-
vill Manufacturing Company in 1889 with Washing-
ton Irving Adams (1832–1896) serving as President,
Treasurer, and Secretary. The fi rm, which evolved
from a company with a diverse history, originated as a
gristmill on the Mad River in Waterbury, Connecticut
in 1680. The mill, converted in the early 19th century
to the gilt and brass button manufactory of Abel Por-
ter & Co., was purchased by James Mitchell Lamson