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editions of local and regional popular types in post-
cards, newspapers, and magazines. Some photography
publishing houses relied upon this market for a good
part of their sales.
A small part of theses photographs were the product
of organized travels, using the train or even bicycles,
some were made in response to newspaper-launched
campaigns, sometimes refl ecting the idea of gathering
a collection of all national or regional types. However,
local photographers, to supplement the income from
their portrait studios, were producing much more.
The stress is no longer on racial issues, even if they
are sometimes present to tell a country apart from his
neighbour, but on professional or local types. Peasants,
water carriers, fi sherman and even beggars all were in
the focus of the photographer. Some types were more in
favor of photographers, country women washing in the
streams, is one example, the old long bearded fi sherman,
another, they more the result of a culturally constructed
choice than of reality. The Russian empire had the most
organized attempt on this nationalist use of ethnographic
photography, the Moscow Ethnographic Exhibition of
1867, showed, mainly with photographs, the different
peoples and professional types of the empire with a pan
Slavic imperial idea.
For all these images there were a multitude of differ-
ent uses, from scientifi c research to the family albums,
postcard and magazine publication. They seemed to be
an important part of some local photographers revenue,
but there were also amateur photographers mainly con-
cerned with photographing their hometown or village.
Arguably the images made for research are less linked
to cultural stereotypes than those made by commercial
photographers and amateurs. However, the similitude
of ethnographic photographs from around the world is
a proof of photography’s international character and of
its origin in 19th century’s ideology. The stereotypes
created by 19th century ethnographic photography are
sometimes still alive, and had an important infl uence in
how people around the world are perceived. In places
from Portuguese fi shing villages to Moroccan roads
people stand dressed up waiting to get some money from
the tourist photographer, they are doing no more than
allowing the persistence of 19th century ethnographic
type photography.
Nuno de Avelar Pinheiro
See also: Africa (Sub-Saharan); Africa, North
(excluding Egypt and Palestine); Anthropology;
Austro-Hungarian empire, excluding Hungary
(Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Croatia); Beato, Antonio; Beato, Felice; Belloc,
Auguste; Bonfi ls, Fèlix, Adrien, and Marie-Lydie
Cabanis; Bourne, Samuel; Brazil; Canada; Chile;
Christiano Junior; Coutinho Brothers; Curtis, EdwardSheriff; Egypt and Palestine; Imperialism and
colonialism; Notman, William & Sons; Orientalism;
Ottoman Empire, Asian; and Persia (Turkey, the
Levant, Arabia, Iraq; Iran); India and Afghanistan;
Poland; Portugal; Romania; and Russian Empire (all
ex-Soviet republics).Further Reading
Alvarado, Margarita, et all, Fotografi a Mapuche, Construcción
y Montage de un Imaginario, (cd-rom), Santiago, Pontifi cia
Universidad Católica de Chile, sd.
Edwards, Elizabeth, ed., Anthropology and Photography, 1860,
1920, New Haven, London, Yale University Press, 1992.
Graham-Brown, Sarah, Images of Women, The Portrayal of
Women in Photography of the Middle East, 1860, 1950, New
York, Columbia University Press, 1988.
Mondéjar, Publio López, Las Fuentes de la Memoria: Fotografi a
y Sociedad en la España del Siglo XIX, Barcelona, Lunwerg,
1988.
Ryan, James R., Picturing Empire, Photography and the Visual-
ization of British Empire, London, Reaktion Books, 1997.
Sena, António, História da Imagem Fotográfi ca em Portugal,
1839, 1997, Porto, Porto Editora, 1998.EUGENE, FRANK (1865–1936)
American photographerBorn Frank Eugene Smith in New York, Frank Eugene’s
long engagement with photography began while study-
ing painting in Munich between 1886 and the early
1890s, and his photographic work echoed many of
the stylistic qualities of the pictorial movement of the
period. Initially he saw himself as a painter, with pho-
tography no more than an abiding hobby.
By the late 1890s, however, he was being described
as a ‘painter photographer’ a term coined specifi cally for
him, as his work bridged the two mediums. His photog-
raphy often involved extensive afterwork on the negative,
using scraping tools and paints to modify the images.
Eugene fi rst came to public prominence in 1899
when an exhibition of his unique approach to pictorial
photography was mounted at the Camera Club of New
York, and several images were included in the London
Salon of that same year. Sadakichi Hartmann observed
that “he is essentially a painter, and looks at photog-
raphy merely as a new medium to express his artistic
individuality.”
Four examples of Eugene’s work was featured in
Alfred Steiglitz’s journal Camera Notes, and he later
became one of the most regularly featured photogra-
phers in Camera Work.
In the 20th century, Eugene became one of the ‘Amer-
ican Links’ of the Brotherhood of the Linked Ring, and
in 1902 a founder member of the Photo-Secession.
John HannavyEUGENE, FRANK
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