702
photographers such as Jackson, Watkins, Vroman and
Thomson who carefully directed the ‘types’ they were
photographing. Looking at the composition and pho-
tographic approach used by these photographers, one
gets curious to know more about their training, their
remarkable interest in (non-)Western infl uences and
the manner in which they incorporated these infl uences
into their work.
Developing mechanical means for printing photo-
graphs with a printing press or lithograph was a major
concern for 19th century inventors. Finally, around 1870
a practical means of photomechanical reproduction be-
came available, but it was not very good at reproducing
gray shades. Later, around 1880, the halftone method
was perfected, allowing accurate reproduction of pho-
tographs at reasonable cost and giving rise to many
illustrated magazines and newspapers.
Pictorialism was an international movement, but the
fi rst Pictorialist association, the Photo-Club de Paris,
was set up in France in 1888 by Robert Demachy, and
the fi rst Salon was not held until 1894. Demachy was a
independent rich man from a banking family who was
passionate about photography. He was highly cultivated
and a remarkable technician who, with the help of Alfred
Maskell, encouraged an interest in the typically Picto-
rialist gum bichromate method developed by Rouillé-
Ladevèze in 1894. Demachy choice of theme was often
inspired by Depas’painting, although there can also be
a symbolist side to his work.
Initially, photographs were limited in size by the
size of the camera and photographic plate. One of kind
photos like daguerreotypes were of course of the size of
the plate used to make them. With glass plates, placing
the plate against a sheet a paper and letting light pass
through the negative, produced a photo of exactly the
same size as the negative. A process for enlarging prints
was invented in the late 1850’s but it was only during the
decade1880–1890 that it became widely available.
The magic of photography caught the popular
imagination as soon as it became known and available.
After 1888 almost every aspect of everyday life became
subject to photographic record, and a boom that goes
on even today, was born.
Johan Swinnen
See also: Emerson, Peter Henry; Stieglitz, Alfred;
Muybridge, Eadweard James; Jackson, William
Henry; Watkins, Carleton Eugene; Thomson, John;
von Stillfried und Ratenitz, Baron Raimund; Motion
Photography; Marey, Etienne Jules; Annan, Thomas;
Annan, James Craig; War Photography; Eastman,
George; Camera Design: 6 Kodak (1888–1900);
Carbutt, John; Vogel, Hermann Wilhelm; Royal
Society, London; Robinson, Henry Peach; Davidson,
George; Brotherhood of the Linked Ring; Naturalistic
Photography; and Picturalism.
Further Reading
Aubenas, Sylvie, L’art du nu au XIXième siècle: le photogrpahe
et son modèle, Hazan, Bibliothèque Nationale de France,
1997.
Auer, Michel & Michèle, Encyclopédie internationale des pho-
tographes des débuts à nos jours, CD-Rom, Neuchâtel, Éd.
Ides et Calendes, diffusion Hazan, 1997.
Bajac, Quentin, Heilbrun, Françoise, Photography, Paris: Edi-
tions Scala, 2000.
Boom, Mattie (ed.), A New Art. Photography in the 19th Century,
Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, 1996.
Boulouch, Nathalie, Albert Londe, positions autochromistes,
Etudes photogaphiques, np. 6, Mai 1999, Paris: Société
française de photographie, 1999.
Busse, Jacques, Dictionaire de peintres, sculpteurs, desinateurs
en graveurs de tous les temps et de tous un group d’écrivains
specialists français et étrangers (tome 4), Paris: Gründ,
1999.
Coe, Brian, The Birth of Photography, London: Ash & Grant,
Ltd, 1976.
Eder, Josef Maria, History of Photography, New York: Dover
Publications, 1972.
Font-Reaulx, Dominique de, L’art de nu au XIXième siècle: le
photographe et modèle, Hazan, Bibliothèque Nationale de
France, 1997.
Frizot, Michel (ed.), Nouvelle Histoire de la Photographie, Paris:
Bordas, 1994.
Gernsheim, Helmut and Alison, The origins of photography,
London: Thames and Hudson, 1982.
Heilbrun, Françoise (ed.), L’invention d’un regard (1839–1918),
Paris: Musée d’Orsay/Bibliothèque nationale, 1989.
Hirsch, Robert, Seizing the Light, a history of photography,
Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000.
Jay, Paul (ed.), Les calotypes du fonds d’Iray, Chalon-Sur-Saône:
Musée Nicéphore Niépce, 1983.
Joseph, Steven, Schwilden, Tristan, Claes, Marie-Christine, Di-
rectory of photographers in Belgium 1839–1905, vol. I, text,
Antwerpen: Uitgeverij C. de Vries-Brouwers, 1997.
Kempe, Fritz, Daguerretypie in Deutschland: vom Charme der
frühen Fotografi e, Verlag: Seebruck am Chiemsee hering
1979.
Launay, Françoise, Dans les champs des étoiles, les photographes
et le ciel 1850–2000, Paris: Musée d’Orsay, 2000.
Le Rider, Georges, Une invention du XIXe siècle, expressionet
technique, la photographie, collection de la société française
de photographie, Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1976.
Lemagny Jean-Claude, Sayag, Alain, L’invention d’un art, Paris:
Centre Georges Pompidou, 1989.
Lewinski, Jorge, A history of nude photography, the naked and
the nude, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987.
Marien, Mary Warner, Photography. A Cultural History, London:
Laurence King Publishing, 2002.
Sipley, Louis Walton, Photographer’s Great Inventors, Philadel-
phia: American Museum of Photography, 1965
Strauss, Victor, The lithographers manuel, Vol. I & II, New York:
Waltwim Publishing Co., 1958
Swinnen, Johan, De paradox van de fotografi e, Antwerpen:
Uitgeverij Hadewijch/Cantecleer, 1992
Tréfeu, Etienne, Nos marins, Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1888
Turner, Jane (ed.), Dictionary of Art, Vol. 8, London: Macmil-
lan, 1996
Van Goethem, Herman, Photography and realism in the 19th
Century, Antwerpen: Pandora, 2000
Vercheval George, Pour une Histoire de la Photographie en
Belgique, Charleroi: Musée de la Photographie, 1993.HISTORY: 7. 1880s