Islam • 65into the interstices of their lives, Muslims were cultivating
that constant remembrance (dhikr) of God enjoined by the
Quran By. 4the middle of the tenth century this Shariah piety
had been established throughout the empire. There were four
recognized law schools, each regarded with Muslim egalitar-
ianism as equally valid: the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali
schools, the latter preserving the ideals of Ibn Hanbal and the
Hadith People. In practice, these four madhhabs did not differ
markedly from one another. Each Muslim could choose the
one he or she would follow, though most tended towards the
one that was prevalent locally.
But as one might expect, the chief factor that drew all
Sunni Muslims together was political. The divine was experi-
enced in the form taken by the community, and this affected a
Muslim's personal piety. Sunni Muslims all revered Muham-
mad and all four rashidun. Despite the failures of Uthman or
Ali, these rulers had been devout men who far surpassed con-
temporary rulers in the quality of their surrender to God.
Sunnis refused to demote the first three rashidun, as the Shiis
did, believing that Ali alone had been the legitimate imam of
the ummah. Sunni piety was more optimistic than the tragic
vision of the Shiis. It asserted that God could be with the
ummah even in times of failure and conflict. The unity of the
community was a sacred value, since it expressed the oneness
of God. This was far more important than any sectarian divi-
sion. It was crucial, therefore, for the sake of peace, to recog-
nize the present caliphs, despite their obvious shortcomings.
If Muslims lived according to the Shariah, they could create a
counter-culture that would transform the corrupt political
order of their day, and make it submit to God's will.
T H E ESOTERIC MOVEMENTS
This piety did not satisfy all Muslims, however, though it be-
came the faith of the majority. Those who were more intel-