IMPERIAL ISLAM (1500.1700)
The discovery and exploitation of gunpowder led to the de-
velopment of a military technology that gave rulers more
power over their subjects than before. They could control
greater areas more effectively, provided that they also devel-
oped an efficient, rationalized administration. The military
state, which had been a feature of Islamic politics since the
decline of Abbasid power, could now come into its own. In
Europe also, monarchs were beginning to build large central-
ized states and absolute monarchies, with a more streamlined
government machinery. Three major Islamic empires were
created in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries: the
Safavid Empire in Iran, the Moghul Empire in India and the
Ottoman Empire in Anatolia, Syria, North Africa and Arabia.
Other impressive polities also appeared. A large Muslim state
was formed in Uzbekhistan in the Syr-Oxus basin; another
state with Shii tendencies was established in Morocco, and
even though Muslims were at this time in competition with
Chinese, Japanese, Hindu and Buddhist traders for the con-
trol of the Malayan archipelago, the Muslims came out on top
in the sixteenth century.
It was, therefore, a period of triumph. The three major em-
pires all seemed to turn their backs on the egalitarian tradi-
tions of Islam, and set up absolute monarchies, however.
Almost every facet of public life was run with systematic and
bureaucratic precision and the empires developed a sophisti-
cated administration. They were all influenced by the Mon-
gol idea of the army state, but involved civilians in their
imperial policies, so that the dynasties won more grass-roots
support. But these empires were very different from the old