Islam • 29Byzantine heartlands in Anatolia. Nevertheless, the Muslims
were victorious at the Battle of Yarmuk (636) in northern
Palestine, conquered Jerusalem in 638, and controlled the
whole of Syria, Palestine and Egypt by 641. The Muslim
armies went on to seize the North African coast as far as
Cyrenaica. Just twenty years after the Battle of Badr, the
Arabs found themselves in possession of a sizeable empire.
This expansion continued. A century after the Prophet's
death, the Islamic Empire extended from the Pyrenees to the
Himalayas. It seemed yet another miracle and sign of God's
favour. Before the coming of Islam, the Arabs had been a de-
spised outgroup; but in a remarkably short space of time they
had inflicted major defeats upon two world empires. The ex-
perience of conquest enhanced their sense that something
tremendous had happened to them. Membership of the
ummah was thus a transcendent experience, because it went
beyond anything they had known or could have imagined in
the old tribal days. Their success also endorsed the message
of the Quran, which had asserted that a correctly guided so-
ciety must prosper because it was in tune with God's laws.
Look what had happened once they had surrendered to God's
will! Where Christians discerned God's hand in apparent fail-
ure and defeat, when Jesus died on the cross, Muslims experi-
enced political success as sacramental and as a revelation of
the divine presence in their lives.
It is important, however, to be clear that when the Arabs
burst out of Arabia they were not impelled by the ferocious
power of "Islam." Western people often assume that Islam is a
violent, militaristic faith which imposed itself on its subject
peoples at sword-point. This is an inaccurate interpretation of
the Muslim wars of expansion. There was nothing religious
about these campaigns, and Umar did not believe that he had
a divine mandate to conquer the world. The objective of
Umar and his warriors was entirely pragmatic: they wanted