to the head of the line makes you angry even if you are standing in
another line. The existence of such dispositions tends to make cheat-
ing a low-benefit strategy. That is, even if cheaters appear, they will
not have the smooth ride that would make their behavior really prof-
itable. This does not guarantee that they will not appear. As we all
know, there arecon artists and swindlers about. Their strategy works
to some extent but not well enough to eliminate all cooperators.^13
Seeing cooperation as not just a rational problem but also an evolu-
tionary one suggests why these dispositions should take the form of
feelingsrather than rationally motivated cogitation. Many varieties of
m o r a l feelings make much more sense once we see them in this light. [187]
Guilt is a punishment we incur for cheating or generally not living up
to our advertised standards of honest cooperation with others. But
then a feeling of guilt is also useful if it balances the benefits of cheat-
ing, making it less tempting. Prospective guilt provides negative
rewards that help us brush aside opportunities to cheat, a capacity that
is crucial in organisms that constantly plan future behavior and that
must assess its prospective benefits. Gratefulness is a positive emo-
tional reward associated with encountering cooperation in others in
situations where cheating was indeed possible. Pride, a positive reward
for cooperative behavior, somehow compensates for the frustration of
missed opportunities to cheat. All these dispositions are all the more
beneficial if we have limited control over their emotional effects.
GENERAL DISPOSITIONS,
VARIABLE JUDGEMENTSThis detour through the evolution and psychology of moral intuitions
may help make sense of very general properties of human morality.
Our evolved dispositions connect specific emotional states to specific
situations of social interaction. This is why specific moral prescrip-
tions vary a lot from culture to culture but their connection to social
interaction does not. Many cues tell us whether people are on the
whole good cooperators or not, but these cues are often related to
particular ways of life. Faced with strangers whose habits and lan-
guage are different, there is precious little to guide us. Conversely,
people with good dispositions can truly demonstrate them only to
people who understand them. It is not surprising that the history of
tribal mankind is also the history of solidarity within tribes and war-
WHYDOGODS ANDSPIRITSMATTER?