Bhakti
Two distinct but related phenomena demonstrated the “Hinduization” that
occurred from the sixth to the ninth centuries CE. The first was the explosion
of devotional (bhakti) literature in the Tamil vernacular; the other was the
construction of temples and incorporation of an elaborate symbolic and ritual
life therein. We focus first on the experience of bhakti. Singers from various
walks of life (brahman, royalty, common folk) sang the praises of the high
gods. Myths from northern epic sources were selectively appropriated; epic
“high gods” were grafted onto the indigenous deities; the local landscape was
celebrated and extolled as the abode of the gods. An anti-Buddhist and anti-
Jain polemic was replaced within a generation by a co-opting of Jain and
Buddhist motifs. “Hinduism” was presented as the religion of Tamil country.
There were two sets of singers: A ̄l
̄
va ̄rs, literally “those who drown” (in the
grace of the god), were those who extolled the virtues of Vis.n.u. Over a period
of several generations, the a ̄l
̄
va ̄rscomposed thousands of stanzas singing of
the bliss of surrender (prapatti) to god and exploits of their beloved deity.
Among these poets were two known as Periya ̄l
̄
va ̄r(biga ̄l
̄va ̄r) and Namma ̄l
̄va ̄r
(oura ̄l
̄
va ̄r). Another, A ̄n.t.a ̄l, was perhaps the first woman poet in India,
certainly the first devotional singer, who likened the relationship with
god to that of husband and wife and lover to lover. On the S ́aivite side, the
Na ̄yan
̄
ma ̄rsextolled the virtues of S ́iva, both his terror (as exemplified in
his burning of the three cities) and his grace (arul.). While there were said
to be sixty-three Na ̄yan
̄
ma ̄rs, perhaps in response to the notion of sixty-three
Jain teachers, there were, in fact, some six to nine historical figures, some
of whom were poets, including those known as Cundarar,Appar, and
N
~
a ̄n
̄acampantan. The songs of those poets, Vais.n.ava and S ́aiva, were fluid
and retained orally; but, both sets of materials were collected and edited in
the eleventh century, the Vais.n.ava corpus into the Na ̄la ̄yira-Divyaprabandham
and the S ́aiva corpus into the Teva ̄ram.
The work of two of these poets can illustrate the character of their
devotion. Namma ̄l
̄
va ̄r, for example, evoked the creative powers of Vis.n.u in
a manner appropriate for a period of transition and “creation” of a more
nearly “Hindu” order.
First, the discus
rose to view,then the conch,
the long bow,
the mace,
and the sword;90 The Post-classical Period