among others, descriptions of water libations, the use of earthen vessels, and
the use of various natural phenomena in worship like fruits, leaves, and
sacred stones. Such practices must have had their roots in the Dravidian
context, but in the hands of brahman priests were given a vaidikaimpri-
matur. This process has moved at least one scholar to suggest these temple
rituals were a compromise between Vedic and “folk” practice.^12 Similarly,
ta ̄lapura ̄n.aswhich purported to tell the story of specific temples and their
sites incorporated many elements that reflected long-standing Tamil
perceptions of landscapes. These included the sacrality of land and its
creativity and/or malevolence; the goddess as personification of land and
her/its need to be pacified; and sacrifice as an element in the practice of
religion; and others.^13
The Co ̄l
̄
a period also marked certain other developments in the religious
landscape of the south. Monastic cells (mat.ams; Skt: mat.ha) became estab-
lished as schools or centers for study and meditation, often in alliance with
certain temples. These mat.amswere not unanimous in their teachings and
often were in competition with each other for enrollees. Another significant
development in the period was the way S ́aivite culture was spread particularly
into Southeast Asia. As Therava ̄da Buddhist culture emanated out of
Sri Lanka, into Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia, Buddhist kings would set
up capitals, palaces, and temples in such cities as Polonnaravu (Sri Lanka),
Pagan (Burma), and Ayuthya (Thailand). These kings often turned to the
brahmanic advisers of the Pallava or Co ̄l
̄
a households for advice in building
such structures. Those advisers who were S ́aiva took with them the principles
found eventually in the S ́aiva ̄gamas, while Vais.n.ava forms often emulated the
styles of the Pallavas. The result was a Hindu-Buddhist architecture and
iconography in much of Southeast Asia.
It would be a mistake to assume that the religious landscape of South India
was monolithic. Not only were there rivalries between mat.amsand between
S ́aivas and Vais.n.avas. There were also pockets of Buddhists that remained,
especially further north in such centers as Amara ̄vatı ̄, now in Andhra
Pradesh. Islamic settlements had also appeared by the eighth century,
especially on the southwest coast and had become pockets of Islamic culture.
Small Jewish and Christian settlements were also to be found in the area
now known as Kerala (we will explore more of these minority groups
later). Even within “Hindu” circles there were movements of protest and
reinterpretation. One of these movements was known as the cit.t.ars(Skt:
siddhas) – a group of mendicant ascetics who claimed to worship S ́iva, yet
eschewed visits to temples. Rather, they lived in isolated areas (such as where
Jain monks had once lived) practiced forms of indigenous medicine and
mysticism. The body, though considered defiled, nonetheless could be the
medium through which the divine could be accessed. Another group of
98 The Post-classical Period