aniconic and formless or iconic – that is, manifested in specific forms. Hence,
most agreed that specific deities were manifestations of brahman. Similarly,
there was the individualized form of brahman, that is, a ̄tman, which in its
natural state was one with brahman, but for most human beings existed in
“bondage” within organisms. The a ̄tmanwas involved in the world because
ofavidya ̄, the inability to discern the reality about existence. The world was
an expression of brahman, it was derived from brahman, and/or was pervaded
bybrahman. However, for some, such as S ́an.kara, the world was less “pure,”
even only relatively “real” insofar as it was considerably removed from
its source.
How does one know the truth? In two ways – through “experience,” that
is, through intuitive wisdom or enlightenment, but also through the sacred
texts especially those that are s ́ruti(heard or revealed). More specifically,
theUpanis.adswere revealed and were thus self-validating but also were
validated by experience. Other smr.tiliterature was cited by some as
authoritative (e.g., the Bhagavadgı ̄ta ̄or the A ̄ ̄lva ̄rs).
The ultimate destiny to which one should aspire was moks.a(union with
brahman). Bha ̄skaran insisted only brahmans could attain moks.a, but
Ra ̄ma ̄nuja maintained any and all could approach the deity. Most of the
proponents of the school, however, tended to excludes ́u ̄drasfrom those
eligible for moks.a.
Most believed there was logic to the cycle of life. Samsa ̄ra, the continual
cycle of life, death, and rebirth could be sorrowful inasmuch as it could lead
to a “second death.” The logic of karmacould affect one’s birth and rebirth,
a matter that critics point out becomes self-serving for brahmans to maintain.
Most of them accepted the Pura ̄n.ic imagery of massive cosmic cycles of
evolution and devolution known as yugas; replicated in smaller cycles of time,
down to moments within the day. There is a desirability of breaking through
tomoks.aat moments which serve as the junctions of these cycles.
There was also a hierarchy of space – there was a center to the world, that
is, “Mt. Meru” – where the gods reside. There were then mythical concentric
circles of the universe (land, ocean, land, ocean, etc.) – the further one was
from the center the further into chaos and away from the sacred center. The
implication of the cosmology was that cities and temples were to reflect this
pattern: temples were at the center of a city; brahmans lived near that center;
while outcastes were to live on the fringes.
Enlightenment was generally thought to occur in stages. As one gained
insight one saw the earlier stages as less helpful; hence one’s perceptions of
the world and social reality change as one neared fuller consciousness. These
stages of consciousness were likened to stages of wakefulness (when one is
caught up in the affairs of the world); to that of sleep when one dreams and
hence retains perceptions and memories of the world; to deep sleep wherein
104 The Post-classical Period