appropriate interpretations of Islam. Given to a mystical lifestyle, Su ̄fı ̄s
insisted that Alla ̄h could be found within one – that he was accessible and
to be enjoyed. Su ̄fı ̄ mystics practiced a quiescent asceticism characterized by
experiential wisdom and ecstasy. The mystical experience was often
expressed in terms of the metaphor of love and the dawning of an inner
illumination, both deemed to be gifts of the divine. Both women and men
had been attracted to the movement. Among the most notable were Rabi‘ah,
a woman born of poor parents in Basra, Iraq; the Persian al-H.allaj, who was
executed in Baghdad in 922 for declaring himself to be one with Alla ̄h;
al-Gazzali(1058–1111), scholar and theologian who made the mystical
experience an acceptable part of Islamic practice; and al-Rumi(1207–73),
the great Persian poet and mystic.^18
By the tenth century, some Su ̄fı ̄ orders were emerging in Iran that were
influenced by Buddhism,^19 just as prior to that Su ̄fı ̄s had incorporated
Christian and Jewish practices. A Su ̄fı ̄ order would develop as seekers gath-
ered around saintly leaders known as sheikhs and spent some three years
receiving instruction. Several such orders entered India, the most widely
spread of which was the Chistı ̄ order. Some came to flee the Mongols; others
came at the invitation of Islamic sultans on the subcontinent and came to
serve a role similar to that played by brahmans under “Hindu” kings. That
is, Islamic rulers sometimes “imported” Su ̄fı ̄ leadership to help integrate the
prince’s central administration. They were, for the most part, eclectic and
non-confrontational. The construction of tombs to pı ̄rsserved a purpose
similar to the construction of earlier temples by Hindu rulers. It localized
religious fervor and gave a sanction to the ruler involved. As a result, in many
settings, Su ̄fı ̄ leaders enjoyed patronage of Islamic rulers: they were the
educators, often teaching Persian as the lingua francain the Islamic courts
of Islamic rulers, but they also learned the local languages; they made
connections with the common people and served to legitimate the state.^20
Not all Su ̄fı ̄ sheikhs were politically engaged. Those who “dabbled” in
politics were known as ‘ulama ̄‘-al-dunya. When Akbar, for example, got rid
of his Sunnı ̄ ‘ulama ̄‘, he installed ‘ulama ̄‘-al-dunyaas his ministers. Such Su ̄fı ̄s
also served in the courts of Deccan rulers. Those who sought purely spiritual
roles were ‘ulama ̄‘-al-a ̄khara. Such were the Chistı ̄s at first, who eschewed
political roles. A third group was the ‘ulama ̄‘-al-sin, who were informally
consulted by rulers on occasion.^21
Quite apart from their political role, Su ̄fı ̄ sheikhs had a significant
religious role in the shaping of Islam on the subcontinent. Religiously, Su ̄fı ̄s
followed some ten principles. 1) Repentance was to be done in several stages
and included an emptying of self-orientation. 2) Abstinence from material-
ism implied refraining from unnecessary accumulations of possessions, as
well as living simple lives. 3) Piety entailed focusing on the sovereignty and
134 The Coming of Islam