Mara ̄thı ̄
Among the earliest of the Mara ̄thı ̄bhaktaswasJna ̄nes ́vara(1271–96). He was
influenced by the popular Va ̄rkarı ̄ sect which worshiped Vit.hoba ̄, the
god of Pandharpur. Also informed by the Na ̄t.ha sect, Jna ̄nes ́vara wrote
a commentary on the Bhagavadgı ̄ta ̄in Mara ̄thı ̄ known as the Jna ̄nes ́varı ̄.^14
Several features of the bhaktimovement were evident in his work: the use of
the regional vernacular, the appropriation of indigenous, even “folk,” forms
of religious practice, and the selective appropriation of Sanskritic sources.
The result was the Vais.n.avization of Mara ̄thı ̄ country, the equating of Vit.hoba ̄
to Kr.s.n.a, and the sanctioning of Mara ̄thı ̄ as a literate form.
Na ̄mdev(1270–1350) was a low-caste tailor and devotee of Vit.hoba ̄, by
now a full-fledged form of Vis.n.u.^15 His songs were passionate and generally
transcended caste and became very popular in the Va ̄rkarı ̄ movement. He
is generally credited with incorporating the kı ̄rtan.(group singing) into the
poetic repertoire, encouraging group chanting such as was used in semi-
annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur.^16
Ekna ̄th(1553–99) was a brahman, but believed that religion could be
practiced in every home. He was also something of a scholar as he provided
a Mara ̄thı ̄ commentary on the eleventh book of the Bhagavata Pura ̄n.aand
offered a new version of the Ra ̄ma ̄yana, known as Bha ̄va ̄rtha Ra ̄ma ̄yan,
thereby giving the story of Ra ̄ma a Mara ̄thı ̄ cast.^17 Ekna ̄th explicitly sought
some accommodation between Muslims and Hindus as in one of his poems
he offers a dialogue between a “turk” and a brahman in which each finds
faults with the other, until in the end, accommodations are found and the
discovery of “true” religion is offered.^18
Tuka ̄ra ̄m(1598–1650) was born into a rural family of grain traders. His
bhaktiwas born of tragedy – the death of his wife and son. Tuka ̄ra ̄m
composed songs that became favorites of va ̄rkarı ̄pilgrims. His songs and his
devotion were intensely personal; ecstasy was the summum bonumof religion.
Though a mystic, his poetry reflected the language and life of the common
people.^19
The final figure in the devotional heritage of Maharashtra was Ra ̄mda ̄s
(1608–81). He was the author of Das ́obhada, a compilation of his writings
and poems and of Manace S ́loka, a compilation of “verses to the mind.” Not
part of the Va ̄rkarı ̄ movement, he was a devotee of Ra ̄ma to whom he built
a temple. He also managed to politicize bhaktiin Mara ̄thı ̄ country. He is said
to have been concerned with the “degeneration” of brahmanic society and
the perceived threat of Islam’s spread. Ra ̄mda ̄ s was believed by his followers
to be an avata ̄raof Hanuman, Ra ̄ma’s “monkey general,” and was responsible
for emphasizing the tradition of ba ̄lapa ̄sana(worship of strength) in which
gyms and Hanuman temples were established. S ́iva ̄jı ̄, the founder of the
142 Developments in the Late Medieval Period